Moral judgement, Prosocial Behaviour and Anti-social Behaviour

Question 1

What are the two stages of moral development?

Answer 1

1) Heteronomous morality
2) Autonomous morality

Question 2

When do children have heteronomous morality?

Answer 2

Children in the preoperational stage (before 7 years old)

Question 3

What type of morality is this? (Heteronomous or Autonomous)?

When children regard the “rules” as fixed, and not seen in the context of the situation

Answer 3

Heteronomous morality

Question 4

What type of morality is this? (Heteronomous or Autonomous)?

When children focus on the action and the consequences, not the intent of the individual(s) involved

Answer 4

Heteronomous morality

Question 5

What type of morality is this? (Heteronomous or Autonomous)?

When children’s morality is often governed by their parents’ expectations of behaviour

Answer 5

Heteronomous morality

Question 6

What type of morality is this? (Heteronomous or Autonomous)?

Children develop the ability to take another person’s perspective, develop the Theory of Mind and demonstrate empathy

Answer 6

Autonomous morality

Question 7

What type of morality is this? (Heteronomous or Autonomous)?

When children are no longer blindly accepting “the rules” as fixed/cannot be changed depending on the situation

Answer 7

Autonomous morality

Question 8

What type of morality is this? (Heteronomous or Autonomous)?

When children can consider an individual’s intentions when they perform a particular behaviour

(and so judge theft of one cookie to be
more serious than accidentally breaking all of them)

Answer 8

Autonomous morality

Question 9

What do studies of children across cultures suggest about children’s way of viewing morality?

Answer 9

Children increasingly take motives and intentions into account when judging the morality of actions (Berg & Mussen, 1975; Lickona,1976)

Question 10

Children’s performances on tests of perspective-taking, Piagetian logical tasks, and IQ have all been associated with their level of moral judgment.

What does this suggest about morality and its correlations with other parts of development?

Answer 10

Moral development is multifactorial (has many factors that contribute to it) and includes a cognitive component

Question 11

It is said that children who have not yet reached the concrete operational stage (below 7 years old) struggle to judge based on autonomous morality.

But studies have shown otherwise. How is this possible?

Answer 11

By making the individuals’ intentions (in the scenario given) more obvious

e.g. Showing a video of a child stealing a cookie and accidentally breaking the cookie jar instead of giving verbal instructions/scenarios

Preoperational children are more likely to correctly identify which is morally more dubious

Question 12

At what age do children understand that a person could not cause a negative outcome “on purpose” if the person did not know that outcome was a possible consequence of their action (Pellizzoni, Siegal, & Surian, 2009)?

e.g. Someone knocking down the jar whilst running is most likely an accident rather than intentional

Answer 12

At around 4-5 years old

Question 13

A 3-year-old who saw an adult intend (but fail) to hurt another adult was (……..) likely to help that perpetrator than they were if that person’s behaviour toward the other adult was neutral (Vaish, Carpenter, & Tomasello, 2010).

Answer 13

Less

Question 14

Which researcher was influenced by Piaget’s work and used similar moral dilemmas as Piaget’s moral development theory?

Answer 14

Kohlberg

Question 15

What are the 3 stages of moral development according to Kohlberg?

Answer 15

1) Pre-conventional moral reasoning
2) Conventional level
3) Post-conventional/principled level

Question 16

Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves self-centered reasoning for committing an act, with a focus on maximising rewards and
minimising punishment?

Answer 16

Pre-conventional moral reasoning

Question 17

Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves obedience to authority?

Answer 17

Pre-conventional moral reasoning

Question 18

Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves instrumental and exchange orientation?

Answer 18

Pre-conventional moral reasoning

Question 19

What happens in stage 1 of Pre-conventional moral reasoning?

Answer 19

Obedience to authority

Question 20

What happens when children’s moral judgements are based on obedience to authority?

Answer 20

A child’s moral actions are motivated by avoidance of punishment

Question 21

What happens in stage 2 of Pre-conventional moral reasoning?

Answer 21

Instrumental and Exchange Orientation

Question 22

What happens when children’s moral judgements are based on instrumental and exchange orientation?

Answer 22

Focuses on the child’s own best interest or involves an equal exchange between people

e.g. If someone hurts me, it is my right to hurt them back

Question 23

Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity Orientation?

Answer 23

Conventional moral reasoning

Question 24

Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves the Social System and Conscience Orientation?

Answer 24

Conventional moral reasoning

Question 25

What happens in stage 1 of conventional moral reasoning?

Answer 25

Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity Orientation

Question 26

What happens in stage 2 of conventional moral reasoning?

Answer 26

Social System and Conscience Orientation

Question 27

What happens when children’s moral judgements are based on Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity Orientation?

Answer 27

What is socially acceptable?

Being “a good girl” or a “good boy” is
important and entails having good motives, showing concern about others

Simply = By being praised by others for being “good” after doing something, children learn to better judge what is right and wrong

Question 28

What happens when children’s moral judgements are based on the Social System and Conscience Orientation?

Answer 28

Fulfilling one’s duties, upholding laws, and contributing to society or one’s group

Simply = When children have moral judgements based on a group’s rules/morals. Children feel that fitting into a group is important and that in social groups, there are rules for a reason. Thus, children follow group rules to fit in.

Question 29

Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves Universal Ethical Principles?

Answer 29

Post-Conventional/Principled moral reasoning

Question 30

Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves Social Contract or Individual Rights Orientation?

Answer 30

Post-Conventional/Principled moral reasoning

Question 31

Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves focusing on moral principles?

Answer 31

Post-Conventional/Principled moral reasoning

Question 32

Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves centring moral judgement on social relationships?

Answer 32

Conventional moral reasoning

Question 33

What happens in stage 1 of post-conventional moral reasoning?

Answer 33

Social Contract or Individual Rights Orientation

Question 34

What happens in stage 2 of post-conventional moral reasoning?

Answer 34

Universal Ethical Principles

Question 35

What happens when children’s moral judgements are based on the Social Contract or Individual Rights Orientation?

Answer 35

Upholding rules that are in the best interest of the group (“the greater good”)

Simply = What is the best outcome for most people? Does this behaviour benefit the majority?

Question 36

What happens when children’s moral judgements are based on Universal Ethical Principles?

Answer 36

Commitment to self-chosen ethical principles that reflect universal principles

e.g. basic human rights

Asserts that these principles must be upheld in any society, regardless of the majority opinion

Question 37

What are the 5 main limitations of Kohlberg’s moral development theory?

Answer 37

1) Kohlberg did not sufficiently differentiate between truly moral issues and issues of social convention

2) Kohlberg did not consider cross-cultural differences in moral behaviour

3) Moral reasoning is not as discontinuous (stage-like) as Kohlberg suggested. Children often reason at different levels on different occasions (or even on the same occasion)

4) Sometimes individuals may act for the common good, but in different situations, they could be more self-centred and vice versa

5) Moral development is not nearly as linear as Kohlberg suggested

Question 38

Which moral development/reasoning theory is more discontinuous (stage-like)?

a. Kohlberg’s moral development theory
b. Social Domain theory

Answer 38

a. Kohlberg’s moral development theory

Question 39

Which moral development/reasoning theory is not discontinuous (does not follow the development in stages) but is more gradual?

a. Kohlberg’s moral development theory
b. Social Domain theory

Answer 39

b. Social Domain theory

Question 40

According to the social domain theory, moral development is a more gradual change based on…? List 3 things

Answer 40

1) The child’s social interactions with peers

2) The child’s social interaction with adults

3) Direct socialization from their parents (parents teach children how to behave, both explicitly through instruction, and implicitly by example)

Question 41

What is the term used to describe decisions that pertain to issues of rights and wrongs, fairness, and justice

e.g. deciding whether or not to steal a packet of crisps from a shop

Answer 41

Moral judgements

Question 42

What is the term used to describe decisions that refer to actions in which individual preferences are the main consideration?

e.g. deciding whether or not to eat a packet of crisps for lunch

Answer 42

Personal judgments

Question 43

What is the term used to describe decisions that pertain to customs or regulations intended to secure social coordination and social organisation?

e.g. deciding whether or not to open a packet of crisps noisily in a cinema

Answer 43

Social conventional judgments

Question 44

At what age do children begin to differentiate between moral and social conventional issues?

Answer 44

As early as age 3

Question 45

Children in India are much (………) likely than children in the United States to say that helping others is a moral, rather than a personal, choice (Miller et al., 1990)

Answer 45

More

Question 46

What is the term used to describe an internal regulatory mechanism that increases the individual’s ability to conform to standards of conduct accepted in his or her culture?

Simply= Part of your personality that helps you determine between right and wrong and keeps you from acting upon your most basic urges and desires

Answer 46

Conscience

Your conscience is what makes you feel guilty when you do something bad and good when you do something kind

Question 47

What does it mean by an internal regulatory mechanism?

Answer 47

A voice inside us (that talks to us in our head and pushes us to act in a moral manner)

Question 48

What does it mean by an internal regulatory mechanism?

Answer 48

A voice inside us (that talks to us in our head and pushes us to act in a moral manner)

Question 49

What does the conscience of a young child primarily reflect?

Answer 49

Their internalised parental standards

Question 50

At what age do children understand some moral standards and rules and begin to show guilt when they do something wrong (Kopp, 2001)?

Answer 50

At 2 years old

Question 51

Children typically adopt their parents’ moral values if…?

Answer 51

1) Their parents use rational explanations rather than harsh discipline/shouting without explaining why

2) The children are securely attached (Konchanska et al., 2002)

Question 52

Why do people engage in prosocial behaviours?

Answer 52

• To get rewards and social approval
• To avoid conflict

Question 53

What is the term used to describe a type of behaviour that helps others for altruistic motives?

Answer 53

Prosocial behaviour

Question 54

Where does altruistic prosocial behaviour originate from?

Answer 54

Prosocial behaviour is influenced by the need to feel empathy and sympathy

Question 55

What is the term used to describe an emotional reaction to another’s emotional state or condition that is similar to that person’s state or condition?

Answer 55

Empathy

Question 56

What is the term used to describe the feeling of concern for another person (or animal) in reaction to the other’s emotional state or condition?

Answer 56

Sympathy

Question 57

Is this empathy or sympathy?

A child feels sad when they see another person look/feel sad

Answer 57

Empathy

Question 58

Is this empathy or sympathy?

A child feels concerned for their friend who is going through cancer

Answer 58

Sympathy

Question 59

What is an important factor in contributing to empathy or sympathy?

Answer 59

The ability to take another’s perspective

Question 60

When infants respond to others’ distress, they (may/may not) differentiate between others’ emotional reactions and their own and seek comfort for themselves (Hoffman, 1990)

Answer 60

May not

Question 61

At what age do children start to clearly differentiate between another’s emotional distress and their own, although their responses may still be egocentric (Hoffman, 1990)?

Answer 61

At about 2 years old

Question 62

At what age do the frequency and variety of young children’s prosocial behaviours increase, although they do not regularly act in prosocial ways?

Answer 62

In the 2nd and 3rd years of life

Question 63

What individual differences contribute towards one’s prosocial behaviour?

Answer 63

1) Genetic factors
2) Environmental influences

Question 64

How do environmental influences contribute towards one’s prosocial behaviour?

Answer 64

1) Socialisation (in the family) is a strong
influence on prosocial development

2) Children are more likely to imitate the
prosocial behaviour of adults with
whom they have a positive relationship
(Yarrowet al., 1973)

Question 65

What is the best way that parents can promote prosocial behaviours in their children?

Answer 65

Parents must be constructive and supportive

Question 66

What is the best discipline parents can apply to their children to promote prosocial behaviours?

Answer 66

1) Discipline involving reasoning (explain to the child why doing a certain prosocial behaviour will benefit everyone)

Question 67

What is the effect of discipline involving reasoning on encouraging children to perform prosocial behaviours?

Answer 67

Children will voluntarily act on prosocial behaviours, especially when the reasoning points out the consequences of the child’s behaviour for others (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998)

Question 68

Why are children in Kenya, Mexico and the Philippines more prosocial than children in the USA?

Answer 68

Children in these countries often live in extended families and are assigned responsibility for others at an early age

Question 69

What is the term used to describe a harmful behaviour intended to bring negative consequences to another?

Answer 69

Antisocial behaviour

Question 70

What is the most common type of antisocial behaviour?

Answer 70

Aggression

Question 71

What are the 2 types of aggression?

Answer 71

1) Hostile aggression
2) Instrumental aggression

Question 72

What type of aggression is this?

Aggression that is motivated by the desire to injure others, either from anger or self-protection

Answer 72

Hostile aggression

Question 73

What type of aggression is this?

Aggression that is motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal, such as gaining possession of a peer’s toy

Answer 73

Instrumental aggression

Question 74

At what age does physically aggressive behaviour emerges?

Answer 74

At around 18 months old and increases until about 2 years old

Question 75

Why is there an increase in verbal aggression in modern times compared to previous years?

Answer 75

Due to the development of language skills

Question 76

What kind of aggression do preschoolers (3-5-year-olds) show as they learn to share?

Answer 76

Instrumental aggression

Question 77

At what age do children show instrumental aggression as they learn to share their toys?

Answer 77

At around 3-5 years old (preschool)

Question 78

At what age do children sometimes show relational aggression, which harms others’ peer relationships such as by excluding from the social group?

Answer 78

At around 3-5 years old (preschool)

Question 79

What type of aggression is this?

When children harm other people’s peer relationships, such as by excluding them from the social group.

Answer 79

Relational aggression

Question 80

What type of aggression is this?

Aggression that is emotionally driven and is antagonistic

Answer 80

Reactive aggression

Question 81

Children prone to (……….) aggression are particularly likely to perceive other people’s motives as hostile and to generate and accept aggressive responses to provocation

a. Hostile
b. Instrumental
c. Reactive
d. Relational

Answer 81

c. Reactive

Question 82

How do antisocial children and non-antisocial children tend to differ?

Answer 82

Based on the way they understand social situations and “read the room” (social cognition)

Question 83

What type of aggression is this?

Unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need or desire

Answer 83

Proactive aggression

Question 84

Children prone to (………..) aggression tend to anticipate more positive social consequences for aggression

a. Reactive
b. Proactive
c. Hostile
d. Instrumental

Answer 84

b. Proactive

Question 85

At what age does aggression decline in most children

Answer 85

From 2-8 years old

Question 86

What problems do children who are aggressive from early in life have?

Answer 86

• Difficulty in paying attention
• Hyperactivity

Question 87

If children respond in an aggressive manner at an early age, this is associated with a range of (………) risk factors

a. Health
b. Peer
c. Family
d. Education

Answer 87

c. Family

Question 88

If children respond in an aggressive manner at a later age, this is associated with (………) interactions

a. Health
b. Peer
c. Family
d. Education

Answer 88

b. Peer

Question 89

Children who are identified as aggressive by peers at age 8 have (……….) self-reported aggression at age 30 and have (………) criminal convictions for more serious offences (Eron et al., 1987)

Answer 89

1. Higher
2. More

Question 90

Which of the following statements about the development of the conscience is true?

A. Children are born with an internal regulatory mechanism of behaviour that changes little over time
B. Older children tend to display internalised parental rules and standards
C. Regular discipline is the best way to ensure a child develops an active conscience
D. None of the above

Answer 90

D. None of the above

Question 91

Which of the following factors contribute to prosocial behaviour?

A. Secure attachment
B. Giving responsibility to children at an early age
C. Positive role models
D. All of the above

Answer 91

D. All of the above