Moral judgement, Prosocial Behaviour and Anti-social Behaviour Flashcards
What are the two stages of moral development?
1) Heteronomous morality
2) Autonomous morality
When do children have heteronomous morality?
Children in the preoperational stage (before 7 years old)
What type of morality is this? (Heteronomous or Autonomous)?
When children regard the “rules” as fixed, and not seen in the context of the situation
Heteronomous morality
What type of morality is this? (Heteronomous or Autonomous)?
When children focus on the action and the consequences, not the intent of the individual(s) involved
Heteronomous morality
What type of morality is this? (Heteronomous or Autonomous)?
When children’s morality is often governed by their parents’ expectations of behaviour
Heteronomous morality
What type of morality is this? (Heteronomous or Autonomous)?
Children develop the ability to take another person’s perspective, develop the Theory of Mind and demonstrate empathy
Autonomous morality
What type of morality is this? (Heteronomous or Autonomous)?
When children are no longer blindly accepting “the rules” as fixed/cannot be changed depending on the situation
Autonomous morality
What type of morality is this? (Heteronomous or Autonomous)?
When children can consider an individual’s intentions when they perform a particular behaviour
(and so judge theft of one cookie to be
more serious than accidentally breaking all of them)
Autonomous morality
What do studies of children across cultures suggest about children’s way of viewing morality?
Children increasingly take motives and intentions into account when judging the morality of actions (Berg & Mussen, 1975; Lickona,1976)
Children’s performances on tests of perspective-taking, Piagetian logical tasks, and IQ have all been associated with their level of moral judgment.
What does this suggest about morality and its correlations with other parts of development?
Moral development is multifactorial (has many factors that contribute to it) and includes a cognitive component
It is said that children who have not yet reached the concrete operational stage (below 7 years old) struggle to judge based on autonomous morality.
But studies have shown otherwise. How is this possible?
By making the individuals’ intentions (in the scenario given) more obvious
e.g. Showing a video of a child stealing a cookie and accidentally breaking the cookie jar instead of giving verbal instructions/scenarios
Preoperational children are more likely to correctly identify which is morally more dubious
At what age do children understand that a person could not cause a negative outcome “on purpose” if the person did not know that outcome was a possible consequence of their action (Pellizzoni, Siegal, & Surian, 2009)?
e.g. Someone knocking down the jar whilst running is most likely an accident rather than intentional
At around 4-5 years old
A 3-year-old who saw an adult intend (but fail) to hurt another adult was (……..) likely to help that perpetrator than they were if that person’s behaviour toward the other adult was neutral (Vaish, Carpenter, & Tomasello, 2010).
Less
Which researcher was influenced by Piaget’s work and used similar moral dilemmas as Piaget’s moral development theory?
Kohlberg
What are the 3 stages of moral development according to Kohlberg?
1) Pre-conventional moral reasoning
2) Conventional level
3) Post-conventional/principled level
Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves self-centered reasoning for committing an act, with a focus on maximising rewards and
minimising punishment?
Pre-conventional moral reasoning
Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves obedience to authority?
Pre-conventional moral reasoning
Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves instrumental and exchange orientation?
Pre-conventional moral reasoning
What happens in stage 1 of Pre-conventional moral reasoning?
Obedience to authority
What happens when children’s moral judgements are based on obedience to authority?
A child’s moral actions are motivated by avoidance of punishment
What happens in stage 2 of Pre-conventional moral reasoning?
Instrumental and Exchange Orientation
What happens when children’s moral judgements are based on instrumental and exchange orientation?
Focuses on the child’s own best interest or involves an equal exchange between people
e.g. If someone hurts me, it is my right to hurt them back
Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity Orientation?
Conventional moral reasoning
Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves the Social System and Conscience Orientation?
Conventional moral reasoning
What happens in stage 1 of conventional moral reasoning?
Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity Orientation
What happens in stage 2 of conventional moral reasoning?
Social System and Conscience Orientation
What happens when children’s moral judgements are based on Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity Orientation?
What is socially acceptable?
Being “a good girl” or a “good boy” is
important and entails having good motives, showing concern about others
Simply = By being praised by others for being “good” after doing something, children learn to better judge what is right and wrong
What happens when children’s moral judgements are based on the Social System and Conscience Orientation?
Fulfilling one’s duties, upholding laws, and contributing to society or one’s group
Simply = When children have moral judgements based on a group’s rules/morals. Children feel that fitting into a group is important and that in social groups, there are rules for a reason. Thus, children follow group rules to fit in.
Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves Universal Ethical Principles?
Post-Conventional/Principled moral reasoning
Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves Social Contract or Individual Rights Orientation?
Post-Conventional/Principled moral reasoning
Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves focusing on moral principles?
Post-Conventional/Principled moral reasoning
Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development involves centring moral judgement on social relationships?
Conventional moral reasoning
What happens in stage 1 of post-conventional moral reasoning?
Social Contract or Individual Rights Orientation
What happens in stage 2 of post-conventional moral reasoning?
Universal Ethical Principles
What happens when children’s moral judgements are based on the Social Contract or Individual Rights Orientation?
Upholding rules that are in the best interest of the group (“the greater good”)
Simply = What is the best outcome for most people? Does this behaviour benefit the majority?
What happens when children’s moral judgements are based on Universal Ethical Principles?
Commitment to self-chosen ethical principles that reflect universal principles
e.g. basic human rights
Asserts that these principles must be upheld in any society, regardless of the majority opinion
What are the 5 main limitations of Kohlberg’s moral development theory?
1) Kohlberg did not sufficiently differentiate between truly moral issues and issues of social convention
2) Kohlberg did not consider cross-cultural differences in moral behaviour
3) Moral reasoning is not as discontinuous (stage-like) as Kohlberg suggested. Children often reason at different levels on different occasions (or even on the same occasion)
4) Sometimes individuals may act for the common good, but in different situations, they could be more self-centred and vice versa
5) Moral development is not nearly as linear as Kohlberg suggested
Which moral development/reasoning theory is more discontinuous (stage-like)?
a. Kohlberg’s moral development theory
b. Social Domain theory
a. Kohlberg’s moral development theory
Which moral development/reasoning theory is not discontinuous (does not follow the development in stages) but is more gradual?
a. Kohlberg’s moral development theory
b. Social Domain theory
b. Social Domain theory
According to the social domain theory, moral development is a more gradual change based on…? List 3 things
1) The child’s social interactions with peers
2) The child’s social interaction with adults
3) Direct socialization from their parents (parents teach children how to behave, both explicitly through instruction, and implicitly by example)
What is the term used to describe decisions that pertain to issues of rights and wrongs, fairness, and justice
e.g. deciding whether or not to steal a packet of crisps from a shop
Moral judgements
What is the term used to describe decisions that refer to actions in which individual preferences are the main consideration?
e.g. deciding whether or not to eat a packet of crisps for lunch
Personal judgments
What is the term used to describe decisions that pertain to customs or regulations intended to secure social coordination and social organisation?
e.g. deciding whether or not to open a packet of crisps noisily in a cinema
Social conventional judgments
At what age do children begin to differentiate between moral and social conventional issues?
As early as age 3
Children in India are much (………) likely than children in the United States to say that helping others is a moral, rather than a personal, choice (Miller et al., 1990)
More
What is the term used to describe an internal regulatory mechanism that increases the individual’s ability to conform to standards of conduct accepted in his or her culture?
Simply= Part of your personality that helps you determine between right and wrong and keeps you from acting upon your most basic urges and desires
Conscience
Your conscience is what makes you feel guilty when you do something bad and good when you do something kind
What does it mean by an internal regulatory mechanism?
A voice inside us (that talks to us in our head and pushes us to act in a moral manner)
What does it mean by an internal regulatory mechanism?
A voice inside us (that talks to us in our head and pushes us to act in a moral manner)
What does the conscience of a young child primarily reflect?
Their internalised parental standards
At what age do children understand some moral standards and rules and begin to show guilt when they do something wrong (Kopp, 2001)?
At 2 years old
Children typically adopt their parents’ moral values if…?
1) Their parents use rational explanations rather than harsh discipline/shouting without explaining why
2) The children are securely attached (Konchanska et al., 2002)
Why do people engage in prosocial behaviours?
- To get rewards and social approval
- To avoid conflict
What is the term used to describe a type of behaviour that helps others for altruistic motives?
Prosocial behaviour
Where does altruistic prosocial behaviour originate from?
Prosocial behaviour is influenced by the need to feel empathy and sympathy
What is the term used to describe an emotional reaction to another’s emotional state or condition that is similar to that person’s state or condition?
Empathy
What is the term used to describe the feeling of concern for another person (or animal) in reaction to the other’s emotional state or condition?
Sympathy
Is this empathy or sympathy?
A child feels sad when they see another person look/feel sad
Empathy
Is this empathy or sympathy?
A child feels concerned for their friend who is going through cancer
Sympathy
What is an important factor in contributing to empathy or sympathy?
The ability to take another’s perspective
When infants respond to others’ distress, they (may/may not) differentiate between others’ emotional reactions and their own and seek comfort for themselves (Hoffman, 1990)
May not
At what age do children start to clearly differentiate between another’s emotional distress and their own, although their responses may still be egocentric (Hoffman, 1990)?
At about 2 years old
At what age do the frequency and variety of young children’s prosocial behaviours increase, although they do not regularly act in prosocial ways?
In the 2nd and 3rd years of life
What individual differences contribute towards one’s prosocial behaviour?
1) Genetic factors
2) Environmental influences
How do environmental influences contribute towards one’s prosocial behaviour?
1) Socialisation (in the family) is a strong
influence on prosocial development
2) Children are more likely to imitate the
prosocial behaviour of adults with
whom they have a positive relationship
(Yarrowet al., 1973)
What is the best way that parents can promote prosocial behaviours in their children?
Parents must be constructive and supportive
What is the best discipline parents can apply to their children to promote prosocial behaviours?
1) Discipline involving reasoning (explain to the child why doing a certain prosocial behaviour will benefit everyone)
What is the effect of discipline involving reasoning on encouraging children to perform prosocial behaviours?
Children will voluntarily act on prosocial behaviours, especially when the reasoning points out the consequences of the child’s behaviour for others (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998)
Why are children in Kenya, Mexico and the Philippines more prosocial than children in the USA?
Children in these countries often live in extended families and are assigned responsibility for others at an early age
What is the term used to describe a harmful behaviour intended to bring negative consequences to another?
Antisocial behaviour
What is the most common type of antisocial behaviour?
Aggression
What are the 2 types of aggression?
1) Hostile aggression
2) Instrumental aggression
What type of aggression is this?
Aggression that is motivated by the desire to injure others, either from anger or self-protection
Hostile aggression
What type of aggression is this?
Aggression that is motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal, such as gaining possession of a peer’s toy
Instrumental aggression
At what age does physically aggressive behaviour emerges?
At around 18 months old and increases until about 2 years old
Why is there an increase in verbal aggression in modern times compared to previous years?
Due to the development of language skills
What kind of aggression do preschoolers (3-5-year-olds) show as they learn to share?
Instrumental aggression
At what age do children show instrumental aggression as they learn to share their toys?
At around 3-5 years old (preschool)
At what age do children sometimes show relational aggression, which harms others’ peer relationships such as by excluding from the social group?
At around 3-5 years old (preschool)
What type of aggression is this?
When children harm other people’s peer relationships, such as by excluding them from the social group.
Relational aggression
What type of aggression is this?
Aggression that is emotionally driven and is antagonistic
Reactive aggression
Children prone to (……….) aggression are particularly likely to perceive other people’s motives as hostile and to generate and accept aggressive responses to provocation
a. Hostile
b. Instrumental
c. Reactive
d. Relational
c. Reactive
How do antisocial children and non-antisocial children tend to differ?
Based on the way they understand social situations and “read the room” (social cognition)
What type of aggression is this?
Unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need or desire
Proactive aggression
Children prone to (………..) aggression tend to anticipate more positive social consequences for aggression
a. Reactive
b. Proactive
c. Hostile
d. Instrumental
b. Proactive
At what age does aggression decline in most children
From 2-8 years old
What problems do children who are aggressive from early in life have?
- Difficulty in paying attention
- Hyperactivity
If children respond in an aggressive manner at an early age, this is associated with a range of (………) risk factors
a. Health
b. Peer
c. Family
d. Education
c. Family
If children respond in an aggressive manner at a later age, this is associated with (………) interactions
a. Health
b. Peer
c. Family
d. Education
b. Peer
Children who are identified as aggressive by peers at age 8 have (……….) self-reported aggression at age 30 and have (………) criminal convictions for more serious offences (Eron et al., 1987)
- Higher
- More
Which of the following statements about the development of the conscience is true?
A. Children are born with an internal regulatory mechanism of behaviour that changes little over time
B. Older children tend to display internalised parental rules and standards
C. Regular discipline is the best way to ensure a child develops an active conscience
D. None of the above
D. None of the above
Which of the following factors contribute to prosocial behaviour?
A. Secure attachment
B. Giving responsibility to children at an early age
C. Positive role models
D. All of the above
D. All of the above
