Module I Flashcards
What do the letters dNTP stand for?
Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate (these are the precursor building blocks to nucleic acids/nucleotides
Which form of DNA is predominant in vivo?
B-DNA
What is the significance of the major and minor grooves of DNA? How are they formed?
The sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA isn’t spaced equally, resulting in a major and minor groove. The Major groove exposes the base letters, allowing binding proteins to “read” the exposed nucleotides. Specifically, the solvent-exposed N and O atoms in the nucleotides form H-bonds with the binding protein’s amino acid side chains, and the difference in the donor-acceptor patterns tells the binding protein which pair of nucleotides it’s attached to.
The width of the minor groove is dependent on which nucleotides are present in the surrounding DNA. For example, a short section of adenine (an A-tract) forms a narrow minor groove. The Minor groove is thought to be harder to read because the H-bond patterns are the same regardless of which way the base pair is flipped, meaning that the only difference in pattern would be between AT and GC pairs. However, there are some DNA-binding proteins that can recognize the minor groove, such as the TATA-binding protein (TBP), which binds at the TATA box and plays a role in initiating gene transcription in eukaryotes.
Why does G+C count affect the melting temperature of DNA?
Because G+C base pairs are held together with 3 H-bonds instead of the 2 found in A+T base pairs, it takes more energy to cleave the base pairs apart, and therefore a greater temperature during melting.
What are some other methods to denature DNA that aren’t heat?
Lowering salt concentration (this removes the cations that shield the negative charges on two strands from each other)
High pH (disrupts H-bonds)
Organic solvents (disrupts H-bonds)
Why does cooling time matter for renaturation?
If denatured single strand DNa is cooled rapidly, it will remain single stranded. However, if it is cooled slowly, the complementary sequences will find each other and form a new double helix.
What happens when we change the values of one of the variables in the Cot curve equation?
Cot Curve Equation: C/C。= 1/(1+tKC。)
This whole equation is really just a ratio. Increasing one variable makes all other variables increase.
Why could Cot ½ of one species be greater than that of another?
The larger the genome size, the longer it will take for any sequence to encounter its complementary sequence. So unless the two species in question have identical genome sizes, the Cot ½ of each species will be different.
Why do some species have Cot curves that follow the ideal model, while others vary?
In the graph of a Cot curve, the fraction of DNA that reanneals faster represents repeated DNA sequences. Because they are found more often in the genome, they have a greater probability of finding a matching sequence and reannealing faster. The remaining fraction of the genome reanneals more slowly because it is made of unique sequences and has a lower probability of finding its one matching sequence.
What is the significance of supercoiling in vivo?
Negative Supercoiling
Puts Potential Energy into DNA, making it easier to pull the helix apart during replication
Plays a role in replication, transcription, and recombination
Transitions between B-DNA and Z-DNA may be triggered by negative supercoiling
Positive Supercoiling
Found in thermophilic archaea, as it is more energetically stable and resistant to degradation at higher temperatures
Under what conditions does B-DNA form? What is its applications?
High humidity (95%)
Low salt concentrations
Predominant helical form in vivo
Under what conditions does A-DNA form? What is its applications?
Low humidity (75%)
High salt concentrations
Found in RNA and in vitro
Under what conditions does Z-DNA form? What is its applications?
High MgCL2, NaCl, or ethanol
Found only in the presence of methylated cytosine
Some evidence for in vivo, but is predominantly the product of bored lab technicians.
How does DNA denaturation depend on G+C content and salt concentration?
High G+C content → Increased melting temperature
Low salt concentration → Increased denaturation speed
How does melting affect relative absorbance at 260 nm?
Once the strands have been separated/melted, the UV absorbance at 260nm increased by 40%, a phenomenon called hyperchromicity.
What are the different types of unusual DNA secondary structures?
Slipped structure, cruciform structure, triple DNA helix, G-Quadruplex
How are slipped structures formed, where are they expressed, and how are they used?
Forms at tandem repeats in which misalignment leads to single stranded loops
Found upstream of regulatory sequences
Possible recognition sites for binding proteins
How are cruciform structures formed, where are they expressed, and how are they used?
Forms when AT rich regions unwind and form a stem-loop cruciform.
For a sequence to form a cruciform, it must be a palindrome, or inverted along its 5’ →3’ directionality
Found in vitro in plasmids and bacteriophages
May potentially be a regulatory element of replication and gene expression, but could also potentially lead to genetic instability and cancer
How are triple helix structures formed, where are they expressed, and how are they used?
Forms when a third strand intertwines
Found in mirror repeat symmetrical sequences
The third strand is either intramolecular (from the same helix) or extramolecular (from a separated DNA molecule)
Uses Hoogsteen base pairs between AT and GC to form
Requires a lower pH (between 4-5) to form
Found in Friedreich’s ataxia
How are G-Quadruplex structures formed, where are they expressed, and how are they used?
Four stranded structure formed in stretches of tandem guanines
Uses Hoogsteen bonds to form the planar G-Tetrad
Stabilized with a central monovalent cation.
Multiple G-tetrads then stack and interconnect with loops, forming the full G-Quadruplex
Found in telomeres and promoter regions
What’s the difference between a classic Watson-Crick G+C nucleotide pair and a GU Wobble?
A GU wobble uses 2 H-bonds, and the classic G+C base pair requires 3 H-bonds.
How does RNA differ from DNA in primary structure? What about secondary structure?
Primary → RNA uses uracil in place of DNA’s thymine
Secondary → RNA forms a single stranded helix, DNA forms a double stranded helix
One tertiary structure found in RNA is a tetraloop, in which four nucleotides form a loop. What kind of interactions stabilize this structure?
Hydrophobic and Van der Waals interactions, and base stacking
Why was the term ribozyme created? How is it different from an enzyme?
The classic definition of an enzyme doesn’t always apply to RNA-enzyme molecules. Enzymes never permanently change their shape and are used over and over ad nauseum. But RNA-enzymes often self-cleave, meaning that they are used only once. So a new term was created to describe these misfit molecules: ribozymes.