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HSC Biology (2022) > Module 6 > Flashcards

Module 6 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a mutation?

A
  • A permanent alteration to the nucleotide sequence of an organisms genome.
  • Can effect protein synthesis.
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2
Q

What is a mutagen?

A

A agent which causes a genetic mutation.

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3
Q

How does electromagnetic radiation cause mutations?

A
  • Radioactive chemicals or UV lift emit highly penetrating radiation.
  • Radiation breaks hydrogen bonds in the DNA, deleting or rearranging nucleotide bases.
  • disruption to DNA sequences causes mutation.
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4
Q

How do chemicals cause mutations?

A
  • Radioactive agents release radiation that alter DNA
  • Intercalating agents insert themselves in between nitrogenous bases, often causing frame-shift mutations.
  • Some metals effect DNA repair and inhibit the process of transcription.
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5
Q

How do naturally occurring mutagens effect DNA?

A
  • Viruses insert there DNA into cells, disrupting there normal function and often causing lasting mutations.
  • Bacterial infections can reduce the efficacy of DNA repair systems.
  • Transposons are segments of DNA which change there position, sometimes altering gene expression.
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6
Q

What are point mutations?

A

Mutations that only effect a few nucleotides within a sequence.

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7
Q

Biotechnology definition

A 
The exploitation of living systems and biological processes to develop tools for technological use. 
Used in areas such as: 
Industry (food and energy)
Medicine 
Environmental sciences 
Computational design
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8
Q

What are the types of point mutations?

A
  • Substitution: when one nucleotide switches for a different one. e.g. A replaces C
  • Insertion: when nucleotides are added to a sequence
  • Deletion: when nucleotides are deleted form a sequence.
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9
Q

What are some medical applications of biotechnology

A
  • Vaccines
  • antibiotics
  • stem cell treatments
  • bio inspired materials (spray on skin)
  • biosensors
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10
Q

What are some environmental applications of biotechnology

A
  • bioremediation ( cleaning up pollutants)

- agriculture (transgenesis)

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11
Q

What are the different effects of point mutations?

A
  • Silent: the mutation has no effect on the production of polypeptides.
  • Missense: the mutation effects the codon altering the polypeptide chain.
  • Nonsense: the mutation introduces a stop codon, resulting in a shortened, dysfunctional polypeptide chain.
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12
Q

What are some industrial applications of biotechnology?

A
  • biodegradable plastics
  • Improving efficiency of industrial processes using enzymes
  • energy sources ( biofuels, photosynthesis)
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13
Q

What are chromosomal mutations?

A

Mutations that effect a substantial amount of a chromosome often a result of errors in meiosis.

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14
Q

What are the types of chromosomal mutations?

A
  • Deletion: When a section of chromosome is removed.
  • Inversion: When a section of chromosome is inverted and reinserted.
  • Translocation: when a section of one chromosomes moves to another chromosome.
  • Duplication: when a section of a chromosome duplicates.
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15
Q

Positive social and ethical uses of biotechnology

A
  • it’s aim is to improve peoples quality of life by meeting the growing needs of society
  • creates new genetic diversity
  • open source directions ( creating a more democratic process for scientific ethics as well as open access data bases)
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16
Q

Concerns regarding social and ethical uses of biotechnology

A
  • ownership (data mining, selling info to industries) / intellectual property
  • commercial implementation (monopolies and consumer rights)
  • regulation
  • bio hacking
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17
Q

What is a somatic mutation?

A

Genetic alterations which are passed on via mitosis.

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18
Q

What are germ-line mutations?

A

Alterations to the germ cells are high are passed on via meiosis and will effect all cells in the body.

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19
Q

What are the future directions of biotechnology?

A

Synthetic biology - an emerging area that includes disciplines from biotechnology, molecular bio, genetics, biophysics, computer engineering and evolutionary bio

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20
Q

Concerns of the effect on biodiversity from biotechnology?

A

-creation of monocultures (we need to be careful as to not wipe competitive alleles from species gene pools)
- horizontal gene transfer (acquisition of genetic information by transfer from a member of a different species)
This may ultimately also lead to a reduction in biodiversity and loss of variation

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21
Q

What is the difference between coding and non-coding DNA?

A
  • Coding DNA encode for a protein

- Non-coding DNA do not encode for proteins.

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22
Q

What are introns?

A

Sequences of DNA that are spliced out post-transcription.

  • some encode for regulatory RNAs
  • Introns regulate alternative splicing so many proteins can be generated by one gene.
23
Q

What are some reproductive technologies?

A
  • Artificial insemination
  • IVF
  • artificial pollination
24
Q

What is regulatory DNA?

A
  • Enhances and silences bind to the genome to control the expressing of particular genes.
  • Promoters recognise particular genes (e.g. polymerase).
  • Terminators mark the end of gene.
25
Q

Artificial insemination uses and advantages

A 
Uses
- Livestock industry 
- Fertility treatment
Advantages
- efficient able to synchronise pregnancies and bypass issues of fertility
26
Q

IVF uses and advantages

A

Uses
- Fertility treatment
Advantages
- able to freeze embryos and genetic screening

27
Q

Artificial pollination uses and advantages

A 
Uses
- pollinating crops
- genetic experiments 
Advantages 
- controlled inheritance of favourable traits
28
Q

What are some cloning techniques?

A

Whole organism cloning
Therapeutic cloning
Gene cloning

29
Q

How does variation occur in fertilisation?

A

The random combinations of chromosomes from each parent and the dominant-recessive interactions between alleles creation unique offspring.

30
Q

Whole organism cloning uses and advantages

A

Uses
- livestock industry (production of genetically identical offspring)
Advantages
- definite inheritance of desirable traits

31
Q

Therapeutic cloning uses and advantages

A

Uses
- medicine (stem cell technologies)
Advantages
- stem cells are able to differentiate into any cell

32
Q

How does variation in meiosis occur?

A
  • Mutation during DNA replication
  • Crossing over
  • Random segregation (separation of alleles)
  • Independent assortment (alleles sorted into gametes)
33
Q

Gene cloning uses and technologies

A

Uses
- medicine and industry (production of important molecules on a large scale)
Advantages
- production of biologically relevant proteins (eg. insulin, enzymes for industry)

34
Q

What are population genetics?

A

The study of genetic differences within and between populations and how it changes due to natural selection and evolution.

35
Q

Define gene flow.

A

The transfer of genetic variation from one population to another.

36
Q

Define genetic drift

A

When the relative frequency of alleles within a population changes.

37
Q

What are some recombinant DNA techniques?

A
  • transgenesis
  • gene sequencing
  • gene therapy
  • ELISA
  • CRISPR
38
Q

Define bottle necking

A

When there is an abrupt reduction in the population size and therefore a decrease in diversity.

39
Q

Transgenesis uses and advantages

A

Uses
- agriculture (development of pest resistant crops)
- environmental biotechnology (bioremediation)
Advantages
- creation of organisms with multiple functions
- transference of favourable traits reduce pesticide use
-exploit biological phenomena

40
Q

Define the founder effect

A

When a new population is established by small number of individuals.

41
Q

Gene sequencing advantages and uses

A

Uses
- medicine (development of personalised treatments)
- genetic research
Advantages
- identification of genetic disorders and risk factors, understanding of evolutionary relationships and forensic biology

42
Q

Gene therapy uses and advantages

A

Uses
- medicine ( reprogramming of dysfunctional cells/tissues)
Advantages
- treatment of diseases such as cystic fibrosis

43
Q

Describe the process of artificial insemination

A
  • extraction of sperm
  • sperm is processed (washed or treated-antibiotics)
  • sperm is inserted into uterus -injected through cervix
44
Q

ELISA uses and advantages

A

Uses
-medicine (reprogramming of dysfunctional cells/ tissues)
Advantages
Forensic epidemiology, identification of infection

45
Q

Benefits of genetic technologies

A
  • The ability to edit cells to synthesise pharmaceutical proteins to treat disease.
  • alteration of agriculture to breed species that exhibit favourable traits .
46
Q

What are the positive outcomes of artificial insemination ?

A
  • favourable genes can be selected and passed on to offspring
  • increased efficacy of livestock industry
47
Q

CRISPR uses and advantages

A

Uses
- molecular biology (gene editing tool)
Advantages
- elegant and cost effective for gene therapy/ transgenics

48
Q

What is a negative outcome of artificial insemination?

A

By selecting and breeding particular traits the genetic variation of the species may become limited, which can lead to issues for the species survival.

49
Q

Outline the process of In vitro fertilisation?

A
  • hormone treatment stimulates the production of eggs
  • multiple eggs are removes from ovaries
  • sperm removed from male gamete is combined with eggs in lab - fertilisation
  • fertilised eggs are incubated
  • when incubated eggs form embryo the embryo is implanted into uterus or frozen
50
Q

List some positive and negative outcomes that occur from In vitro fertilisation.

A

Positive - favourable genes passed to offspring, allows for genetic screening
Negative - expensive

51
Q

Outline the process of artificial pollination.

A
  • pollen is removed from the stamen of one plant
  • pollen is applied to stigma of another plant
  • pollen fertilises the ovum

(When very controlled passing of genetic material is required anthers of plant are removed to avoid self-pollination

52
Q

What positive outcomes are reached through artificial pollination ?

A
  • increased crop yields
  • selection of beneficial traits
  • creation of new plant species
53
Q

What are negative outcomes of artificial pollination?

A
  • can cause monocultures

- lead to decrease in biodiversity

HSC Biology (2022) (4 decks)

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