Module 3 - For Midterm Exam Flashcards
Since the time of the ________, when the world population began growing rapidly, individuals have argued about the causes and consequences of population growth.
Industrial Revolution
In 1798, _______ wrote An Essay on the Principle of Population, changing the way European leaders thought about population growth.
Thomas Malthus (1766–1834)
Eventually, he argued, human populations would outstrip their food supply and collapse into starvation, crime, and misery.
Thomas Malthus
He converted most economists of the day from believing that high fertility increased industrial output and national wealth to believing that per capita output fell with rapidly rising population.
Thomas Malthus
_______ collected data to show that populations tended to increase exponentially or compound, while food production either remained stable or increased only slowly.
Thomas Malthus
In Malthusian terms, growing human populations are limited only by _____
disease or famine, or social
constraints that compel people to reduce birth rates—late marriage, insufficient resources, celibacy, and “moral restraint.”
However, the economist Karl Marx (1818–1883) presented an opposing
view that population growth results from _____, _____, _____, and _____.
poverty, resource depletion,
pollution, and other social ills.
Slowing population growth, claimed ______, requires that people be treated justly, and that exploitation and oppression be eliminated from social arrangements.
Marx
Both ____ and ____ developed their theories about human population growth when the world, technology, and society were understood much differently than they are today. Some believe that we are approaching, or may have surpassed, the earth’s carrying capacity.
Marx, Malthus
______, a mathematical biologist at Rockefeller University, reviewed published estimates of the maximum human population size the planet can sustain.
Joel Cohen
The estimates, spanning 300 years of thinking, converged on a median value of 10–12 billion. We are more than ______ strong today, and still growing, an alarming prospect for some. In this view, ______ should be our top priority.
7 billion
birth control
Cornell University entomologist ______, for example, has said, “By 2100, if current trends continue, twelve billion miserable humans will suffer a difficult life on Earth.”
David Pimentel
Optimists argue that Malthus was wrong in his predictions of famine and disaster 200 years ago because he failed to account for ______ and _____.
scientific and technical progress
TRUE or FALSE
✔ food supplies have increased faster than population growth
since Malthus’s time
TRUE
TRUE or FALSE
✔ progress in agricultural productivity, engineering, information technology, commerce, medicine, sanitation, and other achievements of modern life have made it possible to support
approximately 1,000 times as many people per unit area as was
possible 10,000 years ago
TRUE
TRUE or FALSE
Knowing your ecological footprint is essential
TRUE
Even more unfortunate, developing countries saw a rise, from an average of _____ calories per day in 1970 to _____ in 2015. In that similar period, the world population grew from 3.7 to more than 7 billion people. Indeed, terrible famines have stricken various locations in the past 200 years.
2,135 , 2,850
The impact of human activities measured in terms of the area of biologically productive land and water required to produce the goods consumed and to assimilate the wastes generated.
Ecological Footprint
One way to estimate our environmental impacts is to _______. It gives us a single number, called our ecological footprint.
express our consumption choices in the equivalent amount of land required to produce goods and services.
estimates the relative amount of productive land needed to support each of us.
Ecological Footprint
the land and water area NEEDED TO PRODUCE THE RESOURCES we use and to absorb our wastes
Footprint
the amount of biologically productive AREA THAT IS AVAILABLE TO PROVIDE THE resources we use and
to absorb our waste
Biocapacity
Footprint =
Biocapacity =
Demand
Supply
Services provided by nature make up a large proportion of our ____________. For example, forests and grasslands store carbon, protect watersheds, purify air and water, and provide habitat for wildlife.
ecological footprint
Ecological Debtor
Ecological Deficit
Footprint is greater than Biocapacity
Ecological Creditor
Ecological Reserve
Biocapacity is greater than Footprint
TRUE or FALSE
Consider the enormous economic engines that large countries, such as the United States and China, represent. More people means broader markets, more workers, and efficiencies of scale in mass production of goods. Moreover, adding people to boosts human ingenuity and intelligence can produce resources by finding new materials and discovering new ways of doing things.
TRUE
Economist ______, a champion of this rosy view of human history, believed that people are the “ultimate resource”
Julian Simon (1932–1998)
Who said?
no evidence shows that pollution, crime, unemployment, crowding, the loss of species, or any other resource limitations will worsen with population growth.
Julian Simon
______ theory states that the size and growth of the population depend on the food supply and agricultural methods.
Malthus’
_______ theory opposes Malthus by saying that agricultural practices rely on the size of the population.
Ester Boserup’s
_______ states that when food is not sufficient for everyone, the extra people will have to die.
Malthus
______ says that in those times of pressure, people will find ways to
increase food production by increasing the workforce, machinery, fertilizers, etc.
Boserup
Who said?
• An increase in population would stimulate technologies to increase food production
Ester Boserup
Who said?
• Necessity is the mother of invention.
Ester Boserup
Birth rate is relatively higher that mortality rate wherein nearly ___ children is being added every second and on same period ___ person or ___ dies. By that, the variation between births and deaths signifies a net gain of approximately ___ additional humans per second (on average) in the world’s population. We add around ____ million more people to the globe at a rate of ____ percent per year.
5
1, 2
2.5
75
1.1
TRUE or FALSE
The United Nations reported that in 2011, the headcount of human beings of the earth has reached up to 7 billion, by far the having added the most recent billion in only 12 years.
TRUE
Some countries in the developing
world are growing so fast that
they will reach immense population sizes by the middle of the ______ century.
twenty-first
TRUE or FALSE
Humans have become one of the most abundant vertebrate species on the planet. We are also more extensively distributed, resulting in a more significant global environmental impact above all other species.
TRUE
_____ was the most populous country
throughout the twentieth century;
_____ is expected to pass China in the
twenty-first century. _____, which
had only 33 million residents in 1950,
is forecast to have 299 million in 2050.
China
India
Nigeria
the physical ability to reproduce
Fecundity
the actual production of offspring.
Fertility
TRUE or FALSE
Those without children may be fecund
but not fertile.
TRUE
The most accessible demographic statistic of fertility is usually the ______, the number of births in a year per thousand persons.
crude birth rate
The ______ is the number of children born to an average woman in a population during her entire reproductive life.
total fertility rate
_______ occurs when births plus immigration in a population just equal deaths plus emigration.
Zero population growth (ZPG)
It takes several generations of replacement-level fertility (in which people only replace themselves) to reach ____.
ZPG
For many of these countries, population growth will continue for a generation because they have such a large number of ______. Brazil, for example, now has a fertility rate of only 1.8 children per woman. But 26 percent of its population is under 14 years.
young people
Many children will mature and start to have families before their parents and grandparents die, so the population will continue to grow for a few decades. Demographers call this _______.
population momentum
3.2. Fertility varies among cultures and at different times
In most tribal or traditional societies, food shortages, health problems,
and cultural practices limit total fertility to about ______ children per
woman, even without modern methods of birth control.
6 or 7
3.2. Fertility varies among cultures and at different times
As in _____, fertility rates have declined dramatically in every
region of the world except _____ over the past 50 years.
Brazil
Africa
3.2. Fertility varies among cultures and at different times
✔ The average family in Mexico in 1975, for instance, had _ children.
By 2010, however, the average Mexican woman had only __
children. Similarly, in Iran, total fertility fell from __ in 1975 to
__ in 2010.
7
2.3
6.5
2.04
3.2. Fertility varies among cultures and at different times
✔ China’s ______ policy decreased the fertility rate
from 6 in 1970 to 1.7 in 2010.
one-child-per-family
In demographics, ______ are expressed in terms of the number of deaths per thousand persons in any given year.
crude death rates (or crude mortality rates)
3.3.3. Mortality offsets births
✔ Countries in ____ where health care and sanitation are limited may
have mortality rates of 20 or more per 1,000 people.
Africa
3.3.3. Mortality offsets births
✔ Wealthier countries generally have mortality rates around ______.
10 per 1,000
3.3.3. Mortality offsets births
✔ Rapidly growing, developing countries, such as Brazil, often have lower
crude death rates ______ than do the more- developed, slowly growing countries, such as Denmark ______, even though their life expectancies are considerably lower.
(6 per 1,000 currently)
(12 per 1,000)
______ is the oldest age to which a
species is known to survive.
Life span
Though modern medicine has made it possible for many of us to survive much longer than our ancestors, it doesn’t appear that the maximum ____ has increased much. Cells in our bodies have a limited ability to repair damage and produce new components. Sooner or later, they wear out, and we fall victim to disease, degeneration, accidents, or senility
life span
________ is the average age that a newborn infant can be expected
to attain in any given society.
Life expectancy
3.3.4. Life expectancy is rising worldwide
✔ The oldest age that can be certified by written records was that of _______ of Arles, France, who was 122 years old at her death in 1997.
Jeanne
Louise Calment
3.3.4. Life expectancy is rising worldwide
✔ For most of human history, life expectancy in most societies probably was ______ years.
35 to 40
It does not mean that no one lived past age 40 but instead that many
people died at earlier periods (mostly early childhood), which balanced out those who managed to live longer.
3.3.4. Life expectancy is rising worldwide
✔ The average life expectancy rose from about _____ years over the past 100
years.
40 to 67.2
3.3.3. Mortality offsets births
The number of deaths in a population is sensitive to the ______
population’s age
__________ is another way of expressing the average age at death
Life expectancy
LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH FOR SELECTED COUNTRIES IN 1900 AND 2012
✔ The ______ saw a global transformation in human
health unmatched in history.
✔The greatest progress was in _____.
✔ Longer lives were due
primarily to better _______, rather than to miracle drugs or high-tech medicine.
twentieth century
developing countries
nutrition,
improved sanitation, clean
water, and education
Factors that increase people’s desires to have babies are called ________.
pronatalist
pressures
Raising family may be the most enjoyable and rewarding part of
many people’s lives. Children can be a source of _____, _____, and ____. They may be the only source of _____ for elderly parents in countries without a social security system.
pleasure, pride, comfort
support
3.4.1. People want children for many reasons
✔ Children are valuable to the family not only for ______ but even more as
a source of ______ and help with _______.
future income, current income
household chores
3.4.1. People want children for many reasons
✔ ______ has a need to replace members who die or become incapacitated.
This need often is codified in cultural or religious values that encourage bearing and raising children
✔ Some societies look upon families with few or no children with pity or
contempt, and for them the idea of deliberately controlling fertility may be
shocking, even ____.
Society
taboo
3.4.1. People want children for many reasons
✔ ______ often is linked to having as many children as possible.
Male pride
People want children for many reasons
In much of the developing world—the ________ may be the most crucial factor in population growth in many cases.
parental desire for children
3.4.2. Education and income affect the desire for children
_______ and _______ often result in
decisions to limit childbearing.
Higher education
personal freedom for women
3.4.2. Education and income affect the desire for children
A desire to spend ______ on other goods and activities offsets the desire to have children.
time and money
3.4.2. Education and income affect the desire for children
✔ Education and socioeconomic status are usually _____ related to fertility in richer
countries.
✔ In some developing countries, however, fertility initially _____ as educational levels and socioeconomic status rise.
inversely
increases
Families are improved and able to afford the children they want with higher income. It may be a generation before this unmet desire for children abates
3.4.2. Education and income affect the desire for children
✔ ________ in the 1930s made it economically difficult for families to have
children, and birth rates were low.
The Great Depression
3.4.2. Education and income affect the desire for children
✔ The birth rate increased at the beginning of ______ (as it often does in wartime)
World War II
A ______ followed World War II, as couples were reunited, and new families started
“baby boom”
FACTORS DETERMINING HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH
Fertility, Mortality, Migration
In 1945, demographer ________ pointed out that a typical pattern of falling death rates and birth rates due to improved living conditions usually accompanies economic development.
Frank Notestein
a
typical pattern of falling death rates and birth rates due to
improved living conditions usually accompanies economic
development. He called this pattern the ______ from high birth and death rates to lower birth
and death rates.
demographic
transition
This model is often used to
explain connections between population growth and
economic development.
The Demographic Transition Model
Economic and social conditions change mortality and births
_______ in figure 1 represents the conditions in a pre-modern society. Food shortages, lack of sanitation, malnutrition, medicine, accidents, and other hazards generally keep death rates in such a society around ____ per 1,000 people.
Stage I
30
Economic and social conditions change mortality and births
In _____, economic development brings better jobs, sanitation, medical care, and improved living standards, and death rates often fall very rapidly
Stage II
Economic and social conditions change mortality and births
Note that populations overgrow during _______ when death rates have already fallen, but birth rates remain high.
Stages II and III
Economic and social conditions change mortality and births
The transition is complete, both birth rates and death rates are low, often a third or less than those in the predevelopment era, in developed countries in ______. The population comes into a new equilibrium in this phase, but at a much larger size than before.
STAGE IV
The Demographic Transition Model
Stage 1=
Stage 2=
Stage 3=
Stage 4=
Stage 1= Premodern
Stage 2= Urbanizing/Industrializing
Stage 3= Mature/Industrial
Stage 4= Post Industrial
The ______ between people in their most productive years and retired or declining years can be a considerable challenge for some countries.
inequality
The continuing debate in the Philippine Congress about how to fund the Social Security system is that when this program was established, the Philippines was in the _____ of the demographic transition, with many young people relative to older people. In 10 to 15 years, that situation will change, with many older people living longer, and fewer younger workers.
middle
Theoretical _____, _____, and ______ in a demographic transition accompanying economic and social development.
birth, death, and population growth rates
In a ______ society, birth and
death rates are both high, and total
population remains relatively stable.
During ______, death rates tend
to fall first, followed in a generation or
two by falling birth rates. Total
population grows rapidly until both
birth and death rates stabilize in a _______ society.
predevelopment
development
fully developed
3.5.2. Many countries are in a demographic transition
Some countries have had remarkable success in
population control. In _____, _____, and _____,
for instance, total fertility dropped by more than half in 20 years. _____, _____&, ____, and _____ all have seen fertility rates fall by 30 to 40 percent in a
single generation. Surprisingly, one of the most
successful family planning advances in recent years has been in _____, a predominantly Muslim country
Thailand, China, and Colombia
Morocco, Jamaica, Peru, and Mexico
Iran
The following factors help stabilize populations:
✔ Growing prosperity, urbanization, and social reforms that accompany development
reduce the need and desire for large families in most countries.
✔ Modern communications (especially television and the Internet) provide information
about the benefits of and methods for social change.
✔ Less-developed countries have historic patterns to follow. They can benefit from the mistakes of more-developed countries and chart a course to stability relatively quickly.
✔ Technology is available to bring advances to the developing world much more rapidly than was the case a century ago, and the rate of technology exchange is much faster than it was when Europe and North America were developing.
______ allows couples to determine the number and spacing of their children.
Family planning
It doesn’t necessarily mean fewer children—people could use family
planning to have the maximum number of children possible—but it does imply
that the parents will control their reproductive lives and make rational, conscious
decisions about how many children they will have and when those children will
be born, rather than leaving it to chance.
________ gives us many more options for controlling fertility
than were available to our ancestors. More than 100 new contraceptive
methods are now being studied, and some appear to have great
promise. Nearly all are biologically based (e.g., hormonal) rather than mechanical (e.g., condom, IU).
Modern medicine
3.6.2. Today there are many options
✔ _____ for women are being developed that will prepare the immune system to
reject the hormone chorionic gonadotropin, which maintains the uterine lining and
allows egg implantation, or that will cause an immune reaction against sperm.
Vaccines
3.6.2. Today there are many options
✔ _____ for men are focused on reducing sperm production and have proven
effective in mice. Without a doubt, the contemporary couple has access to
many more birth-control options than their grandparents had.
Injections
The United Nations Population
Division projects four population scenarios:
Optimistic (low) projection
Medium Projection
High Projection
Constant Projection
Population projections for different growth scenarios
The _______ projection recommends that the world population stabilize just below 8 billion by 2050 and then drop back below current levels by the end of the century. The _____ projection shows a population of about 9.4 billion in 35 years, while the ____ forecast would reach nearly 12 billion by midcentury.
optimistic (low)
medium
high
Population projections for different growth scenarios
Recent progress in _______ and ______ have led to significantly reduced estimates compared to a few years
ago. The medium projection is 9.4 billion in 2050, compared to previous estimates of over 10 billion for that date.
family planning and economic
development
As the desire for smaller families becomes more prevalent, ______ often becomes an essential part of family planning.
birth control
Any method used to reduce births, including _____, ______, _____, ______, and ______, usually means controlling birth.
celibacy, delayed marriage, contraception, methods that prevent embryo implantation, and induced abortions
Successful family planning programs often require significant societal changes:
✔ improved social, educational, and economic status for women (birth control and women’s rights are often linked)
✔ the knowledge, availability, and use of effective and acceptable means of birth
control
✔ acceptance of calculated choice as a valid element in life in general and in fertility in particular (the belief that we have no control over our lives discourages a sense of responsibility)
✔ improved status for children (fewer children are born if they are not needed as a cheap labor source)
✔ social security and political stability that give people the means and the confidence to plan for the future
