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Introduction to psychology > Module 3 + 4 > Flashcards

Module 3 + 4 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 3 types of learning?

A
  1. Nonassociative learning
  2. Clasassical Conditioning
  3. Operant conditioning
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2
Q

What is non associative learning?

A

Learning to adjust to a repeated stimulus (sensitization and habituation).

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3
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Learning to predict an unconditioned stimulus by the occurrence of a Conditioned stimulus. This will then result in the conditioned response.

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4
Q

What is the process of creating an association between CS and US called? And what about when it is removed?

A

Acquisition is the creation and extinction is the removal.

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5
Q

What does the Rescorla-Wagner model say about the effectiveness acquisisiton?

A

When de stimulus is surprising it is more likely to be acquired.

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6
Q

What are the positive and negative prediction error.

A

A positive prediction error is when surprisingly there is an even stronger stimulus or an unexpected event, like a different can opener.
a negative prediction is when an expected even surprisingly doesn’t happen and the relation is weakened

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7
Q

What are stimulus generalization and discrimination?

A

Stimulus generalization means that similar stimuli also give the conditioned response
Stimulus discrimination is when the difference between similar stimuli is learned because only one is connected to the unconditioned stimulus.

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8
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

It is when behavior is associated with positive or negative consequences.

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9
Q

What does the law of effect say about behavior?

A

behavior that leads to a satisfying state of affairs is likely to occur more often?

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10
Q

What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?

A

positive reinforcement is increasing the likelihood of behavior by rewarding it.
Negative reinforcement is increasing the likelihood of behavior by taking away a negative stimulus.

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11
Q

What is the difference between positive and negative punishment?

A

Positive punishment decrease behavior by applying punishment
Negative punishment decreases behavior by taking away a positive stimulus.

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12
Q

What is shaping?

A

getting to desired behavior by rewarding increasingly similar behavior.

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13
Q

What is the distinction between primary and secondary reinforcers?

A

primary reinforcers serve biological needs like food and secondary reinforcements don’t directly serve biological needs like money.

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14
Q

What does the Premack Principle say about reinforcers.

A

The effectiveness of the reinforcement is determined by how much you value the reinforcer.

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15
Q

What are the following types of partial reinforcement?

A
  1. Fi fixed interval, after specific time has passed
  2. VI variable interval, after (random) amount of time has passed
  3. FR fixed ratio, after behavior happened specific amount of times.
  4. VR variable ratio, after random amount of behavior.
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16
Q

What three types of learning are there in social learning?

A
  1. Modeling, imitating observed behavior of others.
  2. Vicarious learning, observing someone else get punished or rewarded
  3. Instructed learning, being instructed without experiencing it.
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17
Q

Why does Equipotentiality in learning not hold up to Biological constraints and biological preparedness?

A

Because some things are biologically valued higher of evolutionary feared more and those are easier to learn.

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18
Q

What is conditioned taste aversion?

A

Certain food makes you sick so you start being averse to the taste.

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19
Q

Why do wanting and liking not always go together

A

If you want something you crave it, like smoking. But you do not nessecarily take pleasure from (like) smoking.

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20
Q

What does a phobia have to do with classical conditioning?

A

a phobia is an irrational fear. This could be due to generalizing a fearful experience to all similar situations.

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21
Q

What area in the Temporal lobe is responsible for memory?

A

The Hippocampus

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22
Q

What are retrograde and anterograde amnesia?

A

Retrograde amnesia is not remembering a certain time period before the brain injury.
Anterograde amnesia is not making new memories from the brain injury forward.

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23
Q

What are the Explicit and Implicit memory categories called?

A

Explicit: Episodical and Semantic
Implicit: Priming, procedural, classical conditioning and non associative learning.

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24
Q

WHat is the difference between perceptual and conceptual priming?

A

perceptual priming is when the exact look/word influeces thought. While conceptual priming is when the meaning of the word influences thought.

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25
Q

What happens in encoding, storage and retrieval

A
  1. Encoding is when you put new information into the memory system (making memories)
  2. Storage is the ability to maintain information over time
  3. Retrieval is the ability to retrieve memories.
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26
Q

What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?

A

in maintaincance rehearsal you just repeat the words while elaborative rehearsal requires you to link it to existing knowledge.

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27
Q

How do schemas schemas influence life?

A

you have a schema for each task making sure you do the right things in the right order at the right time (like grocery shopping)

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28
Q

What are iconic memory and echoic memory (in sensory register)

A

the ability to repeat an image or words you just heard in your head.

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29
Q

What is consolidation? And reconsolidation?

A

It is the process of forming lasting connections that are the memory (Long term memory),
Reconsolidating is when you recall a memory and consolidate it again. When you update it it could become untrue.

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30
Q

What are memory circuits?

A

When neurons excite each other, the connection strengthens and stronger connections are formed

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31
Q

What is Long-term potentiation (LTP) and what does NMDA have to do with it?

A

It is the stregnthening of the synaptic connection between neurons. The NMDA glutamate receptor plays a role in LTP because LTP leads to more NMDA receptors

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32
Q

What are flashbulb memories?

A

You remember it very clearly because it was an important or emotional event

33
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A

You remember the context of when you encoded a memory. So the room you were in.

34
Q

What are context-dependent and state-dependent memories?

A

Context-dependent memories is when you best remember if you are in the same setting while state-dependent memories are memories you best remember if you in the same emotional state

35
Q

What is prospective memory?

A

It helps you remember to do something in the future.

36
Q

What is retrieval-induced forgetting?

A

When you retrieve something of a category, the rest of the category is remembered less well.

37
Q

What are proactive interference and retroactive interference of memories?

A

Proactive interference is when the old memory prevents the ability to remember new memories.
Retroactive interference is when the new memories prevents you from remembering older memories.

38
Q

What is persistence in memories?

A

You remember something you want to forget (PTSD)

39
Q

What is memory bias and suggestibilty and source misattribution/amnesia and infantile amnesia?

A
  • Memory Bias is when you change a memory to be in line with current beliefs.
  • Suggestibilty is when misleading information is given to you that results in a false memory
  • Source misatribution is when you falsely remember the source of the memory.
  • Infantile amnesia is when you don’t remember stuff from before 4 y.o.
40
Q

What are analogical and symbolic representations?

A

Analogical representations share the characteristics of the original stimulus while symbolic representations are abstract and do not share characteristics.

41
Q

What is categorization? What is it also called?

A

grouping objects together in categories. These are concepts.

42
Q

What do the prototype model and exemplar model say about concept forming?

A
  • Prototype model says that you have ONE best example for a category and if an object is similar you add it.
  • Exemplar model says that you compare the new objects with all the items in the concept.
43
Q

How is a schema different from categorization/concept forming?

A

A schema helps you actually DO or understand something. It helps you use less attention

44
Q

What is a script schema?

A

It is a sequence of events for a specific

45
Q

Why do gender roles and stereotypes result from schemas?

A

Because you have a model of how something usually is.

46
Q

What are heuristics and how do we use the availability heuristic and representativeness heuristic in decision making?

A
  • Heuristics are shortcuts in thinking.
  • Availability heuristic is basing you decision non what comes most easily to mind.
  • Representativeness heuristic is when you place someone in a category because they fit the prototype (like smart and well-dressed is lawyer)
47
Q

How do we ignore the Base rate and what do we do instead

A

We ignore the base rate, how often it happens, and instead compare it to the prototype of a category even if it is unlikely.

48
Q

What is hindsight bias?

A
  • Hindsight bias is Explaining the cause of something that has happened already
49
Q

What is anchoring and framing?

A
  • Anchoring is when the first thing you encounter is what you base the decision/judgement on.
  • Framing is the way something is so that a specific object is anchored.
50
Q

What do emotion, loss aversion and affective forecasting have to do with decision making?

A
  • Emotion influences the decision because if something invokes more emotions we value it higher.
  • Loss aversion means we weigh losses higher than gains.
  • Affective Forecasting is when your expectations of how you will feel about it are more extremely high/low than reality.
51
Q

What is endowment?

A

You value something higher because you own it.

52
Q

What does the Appraisal Tendency Framework suggest?

A

Your mood influences how you appraise/judge things.

53
Q

What is the psychometric approach to measuring intelligence? And what are aptitude and achievement?

A

Standardized tests that measure mental abilities.
Aptitude is how well you will develop skills in the future
Achievement is your Current skill and knowledge.

54
Q

How is IQ of adults and children calculated

A

In adults the score is compared to average adult and in children the mental age is compared to real age

55
Q

What is the Triarchic theory to intelligence?

A

Your have three intelligences.
- Analytical intelligence is similar to psychometric tests.
- Creative intelligence is your ability to solve new problems and puzzles
- Practical intelligence is ability to do everyday tasks like knowing if parkings spot will fit.

56
Q

What are prenatal and postnatal factors to intelligence.

A
  • Prenatal factors are making sure no bad substances or malnutrition by the mother
  • Postnatal factors are making sure the environment is ideal for development.
57
Q

What is the Flynn Effect?

A

Intelligence has increased over the years due to better education.

58
Q

What are the three stages of prenatal development?

A
  1. Zygote from 0 to 2 weeks. This is when the egg and sperm are connected
  2. Embryo from 2 weeks to 2 moths. This is when the organs are formed.
  3. Foetus starts at 2 months. This is when the baby has a beating heart.
59
Q

What is synaptic pruning and myelination?

A
  • Synaptic pruning is when synaptic connections are formed through gene expression, but many are not needed and disappear.
  • Myelination is insulating the axons. Nutrition is needed for this.
60
Q

What does Translational Neuroscience do?

A

They detect what neurons are affected by environment and they make protein interventions for this.

61
Q

What are teratogens?

A

These are agents, like drugs and viruses that damage the embryo or foetus.

62
Q

What are the following motor reflexes?

A
  • Grasping Reflex is when you grasp things with your hands.
  • Rooting Reflex is when you turn your head towards where you are touched.
  • Sucking reflex is when you suck on things that touch your mouth.
63
Q

What three aspects contribute to developmental milestones according to the dynamic systems theory?

A

There are situational contexts and cultural contexts And there is also an organisms particular abilities and needs. These interact to form spontaneous behavior/development.

64
Q

What is the preferential looking technique?

A

An experimenter sees through a hole what the baby looks at.

65
Q

What is a salient stimulus?

A

A stimulus that has not yet been habituated and categorized.

66
Q

What hormone is important for attachment?

A

Oxytocin

67
Q

What are assimilation and accommodation in the context of schemes?

A

Assimilation is when something is added to a scheme and Accommodation is when a scheme is created or changed drastically for a new stimulus.

68
Q

What are Piaget’s 4 developmental stages?

A
  1. Sensorymonitor stage: (0-2) information only from senses and motor movement. Object permanence develops here.
  2. preoperational stage (2-7): children start to think symbolically but cannot think rationally about what outcomes an action has. They also have egocentrism
  3. concrete operational stage(7-12): Children reason logically and classic operations are reversible. They cannot think about abstract things
  4. formal operational stage(12>): the child can do critical thinking, form and test hypotheses.
69
Q

What is the theory of mind and what lobes are important for this?

A

The ability to know that other people have their own minds and desires. The frontal lobes are important.

70
Q

WHat are Kohlberg’s three levels of moral reasoning?

A
  • Preconventional: Pure self-interest
  • conventional: in accordance with the law and wanting others’ approval
  • Posconventional: consider the greater good and consider abstract principles
71
Q

What is inequity aversion in people?

A

It is the innate fairness in people that unfairness is disliked. In fairness a human shows he is to be trusted, which is important for social interaction.

72
Q

What is context reinstatement in memory?

A

Re-creating the context of the original memory.

73
Q

What kind of memory is stored in the following area’s: Prefrontal cortex, Temporal Lobe, Hippocampus, Amygdala, Cerebellum?

A
  • Prefrontal cortex does working memory.
  • Temporal Lobe does Declarative (explicit) memory.
  • Hippocampus does spatial memory.
  • Amygdala does fear learning.
  • Cerebellum does motor action learning and memory.
74
Q

What does the expected utility theory say about decision making?

A

It describes how decisions should be made, maximizing the outcome. It is when options are weighed and the probability of the outcome too.

75
Q

What is the paradox of choice?

A

When you get too many options, you will be less decisive and less happy with your choice

76
Q

What is the upside of the Raven’s Progressive Matrices test for intelligence?

A

It does not use words, only pictures and patterns.

77
Q

How do you calculate heritability ratio(H)?

A

H = Genetic Variance/Phenotypic variance. If H=1 there is only gene influence.

78
Q

What three types of developments are there?

A
  • Physical/sensorimotor development: Motor control
  • Socio-emotional development: Attachment
  • cognitive development: Piaget’s stages.

Introduction to psychology (3 decks)

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