Module 2 - Foundations in Biology Flashcards
1
Q
Centrioles
A
Structures found in cytoplasm made of microtubules that produce spindle fibres during mitosis
2
Q
Chloroplasts
A
Organelles found in plants & algae that are site of photosynthesis
3
Q
Cilia
A
Small hair-like structures that project from surface of cells
4
Q
Confocal microscopy
A
Type of microscope that uses lasers to scan specimen point by point to produce image
5
Q
Cytoskeleton
A
Mesh of protein fibres found in cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells used for structural support & intracellular transport
6
Q
Differential staining
A
Using multiple different stains to distinguish different parts of a specimen
7
Q
Eukaryotic cell
A
Type of cell that contains a nucleus along with membrane bound organelles
8
Q
Flagella
A
Whip-like structure found on bacteria cells that is used for call movement
9
Q
Golgi apparatus
A
Organelle found in eukaryotic cells that is involved in the modification & packaging of proteins
10
Q
Light microscope
A
Type of microscope that uses series of lenses to magnify the visible light reflecting off a specimen
11
Q
Lysosomes
A
Membrane-bound vesicles found in cytoplasm that contains hydrolytic enzyme lysozyme
12
Q
Magnification
A
How much bigger an image appears compared to original object
image size=actual size x magnification
13
Q
Mitochondrion
A
Organelle found in eukaryotic cells that is the site of aerobic respiration
14
Q
Nuclear envelope
A
Double membrane that surrounds the nucleus
15
Q
Nucleolus
A
Structure found inside the nucleus that contains proteins & RNA & is involved in synthesising new ribosomes
16
Q
Nucleus
A
Organelle found in eukaryotic cells that stores genetic information of cells as chromosomes & is surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear envelope
17
Q
Plasma membrane
A
Semipermeable lipid bilayer studded with proteins that surrounds the cell & many organelles
18
Q
Prokaryotic cell
A
Type of cell that doesn’t contain any membrane bound organelles/nucleus
19
Q
Resolution
A
Ability to distinguish 2 different points in a specimen
20
Q
Ribosomes
A
Organelles found either free in cytoplasm/membrane bound
Involved in protein synthesis
21
Q
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
A
Membrane bound organelle that is involved in synthesis & packaging of proteins
22
Q
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
A
Microscope that passes beam of electrons over surface of specimen to produce an image
23
Q
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
A
Membrane bound organelle involved in lipid synthesis
24
Q
Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
A
Microscope that passes a bean of electrons through a sample to produce an image
25
Adhesion
Property of water molecule that creates an attraction between them & surface that they are in contact with
26
Amino acid
Monomers containing an amino group (NH2), a carboxy group (COOH) & a variable R group that makes up proteins
27
Amylopectin
Branched polysaccharide made up of alpha glucose monomers, joined by α-1,6 glycosidic bonds that makes up starch along with amylose
28
Amylose
Unbranched polysaccharide made up of alpha glucose monomers joined by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds that make up starch along with amylopectin
29
Anions
Ion with a negative charge
30
Benedict's test
Biochemical test used to detect presence of a reducing sugar in a solution & distinguish between solutions of different reducing sugar concentrations
31
Biuret test
Biochemical test that produces a purple colour when it is added to a solution containing protein
32
Cations
Ion with a positive charge
33
Cellulose
Linear polysaccharide that is main component of cell walls & is made of beta glucose molecules joined by β-1,4 glycosidic bonds
34
Chromatography
Technique used to separate different molecules in a solution by their different properties
35
Cohesion
Property of water that creates an attraction between them causing them to stick together
36
Collagen
Type of fibrous protein that provides strength to many different cell types & makes up connective tissue
37
Condensation reaction
Type of reaction that joins 2 molecules together with formation of a chemical bond involving elimination of molecule of H2O
38
Conjugated protein
Protein with a prosthetic group bound to it
39
Elastin
Type of fibrous protein that allows tissues & blood vessels to stretch & return to their original shape
40
Fibrous protein
Class of long chain proteins that are generally insoluble in water & typically have structural roles
41
Globular proteins
Class of spherical shaped proteins that are generally water soluble & typically have metabolic roles
42
Glucose
Hexose monosaccharide that is main respiratory substrate in eukaryotes
43
Glycogen
Highly branched polysaccharide that is used as main energy storage molecule in animals, made up of alpha glucose monomers joined by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds
44
Haemoglobin
Type of conjugated globular protein used to transport oxygen that is made up of 4 polypeptide chains, each containing a haem prosthetic group
45
Hexose monosaccharide
Simple sugar that contains 6 carbon atoms
46
Hydrogen bond
Type of weak bond formed between an electropositive hydrogen and an electronegative atom e.g. oxygen
47
Hydrolysis
Breaking a chemical bond between 2 molecules involving use of a water molecule
48
Insulin
Globular protein hormone that is made in pancreas in response to detection of high glucose levels in blood
49
Iodine test
Biochemical test that produces blue/black colour when its added to solution containing starch
50
Keratin
Type of fibrous protein that provides strength to nails & hair
51
Lactose
Disaccharide made of a molecule glucose & galactose joined by glycosidic bond
52
Lipid emulsion test
Biochemical test that produces cloudy emulsion when performed on lipids
53
Maltose
Disaccharide made of 2 molecules of glucose joined by glycosidic bond
54
Monomer
Individual unit that can be bonded to other identical monomers to make a polymer
55
Pentose monosaccharide
Simple sugar that contains 5 carbon atoms
56
Phopholipid
Type of amphipathic lipid made from molecule of glycerol bonded to 2 fatty acid molecules & phosphate group
57
Polymer
Molecules made from many repeating monomers joined together
58
Primary structure
Individual sequence of amino acids in a protein
59
Quaternary structure
Structure only applicable to proteins with multiple polypeptide chains that describes the interaction of different chains
60
Ribose
Pentose monosaccharide with composes the backbone of RNA
61
Saturated fatty acid
Type of fatty acid molecule containing only single bonds between carbon atoms
62
Secondary structure
Local interactions of amino acids in polypeptide chain
63
Solvent
Liquid that solutes can dissolve in to form a solution
64
Starch
Polysaccharide used for energy storage in plants that is made of alpha glucose joined together in forms of amylose & amylopectin
65
Sucrose
Disaccharide made of molecule of glucose & fructose joined by a glycosidic bond
66
Tertiary structure
Way that the whole protein folds to make a 3D structure
67
Triglyceride
Type of lipid formed from molecule of glycerol joined by ester bonds to 3 fatty acid molecules
68
Unsaturated fatty acid
Type of fatty acid molecule containing at least 1 double bond in the carbon chain
69
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Nucleotide consisting of a molecule of ribose joined to the nitrogenous base adenine & 3 phosphate groups
70
Degenerate (genetic code)
Term used to describe fact that some amino acids can be coded for by multiple different codons
71
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Double stranded polynucleotide that contains the genetic material of an organism & is made up of deoxyribonucleotide monomers joined together by phosphodiester bonds
72
DNA nucleotide
Monomer that makes up DNA & consists of deoxyribose, nitrogenous base & phosphate group
73
DNA polymerase
Enzyme that catalyses formation of phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides during the synthesis of a new DNA strand
74
RNA polymerase
Enzyme that catalyses formation of phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides during the synthesis of a new RNA strand
75
Helicase
Enzyme that catalyses the unwinding & unzipping of DNA in many processes like replication & transcription
76
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Type of RNA that carries genetic information from DNA in nucleus to ribosomes for translation
77
Non-overlapping (genetic code)
Term used to describe fact that each base is only part of 1 codon is read 1 at a time in order
78
Nulceotide
Monomer from which nucleic acids are made that consist of a pentose sugar, nitrogenous base & phosphate group
79
Phosphodiester bond
Type of bond that joins nucleotides together to create polynucleitide
80
Purines
Class of nitrogenous bases which are made up of 2 rings that adenine & guanine are members of
81
Pyrimidines
Class of nitrogenous bases which are made up of a single ring that cytosine, thymine 7 uracil are members of
82
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Type of RNA that makes up ribosomes
83
RNA nucleotide
Monomer that makes up RNA & consists of ribose, nitrogenous base & phosphate group
84
Semi-conservative replication
Replication of DNA to produce 2 new DNA molecules which both contain 1 new strand & 1 old strand from original DNA molecule
85
Transcription
Process of synthesising a new mRNA strand from a molecule of DNA
86
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Type of RNA that has 3 hairpin loops, anticodon for attachment to mRNA codon & an amino acid binding site & used to carry amino acids to ribosome
87
Translation
Process of protein synthesis where complementary tRNAs carrying amino acids are brought to each codon in mRNA as it moves through the ribosome
88
Triplet (genetic code)
Term used to describe that DNA is grouped into 3 base long codons that are read together & code for an amino acid
89
Universal (genetic code)
Term used to describe that the same codon code for the same amino acid in all organisms
90
Activation energy
Amount of energy needed for a reaction to happen
91
Active site
Specific region on an enzyme where the substrate binds & reaction takes place
92
Amylase
Enzyme that catalyses extracellular breakdown of starch
93
Catalase
Enzyme that catalyses intracellular breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into O2 & H2O
94
Coenzyme
Type of cofactor that is bound loosely to an enzyme with weak interaction
95
Cofactors
Non-protein molecule that is needed for the effective functioning of an enzyme
96
Competitive inhibitor
Molecule which binds to the active site of an enzyme & prevent the substrate from binding
97
Cyanide (CN-)
Metabolic poison which acts as an irreversible inhibitor of cytochrome oxidase, prevents respiration
98
End-product inhibitor
Method of enzyme inhibition where the product of an enzyme controlled reaction can bind to the enzyme and prevent it from working
99
Enzyme
Biological catalyst used to speed up rate of biochemical reactions without being used up/permanently altered
100
Enzyme-product complex
Temporary complex formed after the enzyme has catalysed the reaction but before the products have left the active site of the enzyme
101
Enzyme-substrate complex
Temporary complex formed when the substrate binds to the active site
102
Extracellular reaction
Reaction that occurs outside of cells
103
Inactive precursor
Inactive form of an enzyme that cannot carry out its function until its activated
104
Induced fit hypothesis
Model of enzyme action that describes how once a specific substrate binds to the active site, the enzyme undergoes subtle conformational changes to fit the substrate better
105
Intracellular reaction
Reaction that occurs within cells
106
Lock & key hypothesis
Model of enzyme action that describes how the enzyme will only fit a substrate that has the correct complementary shape to the active site
107
Metabolism
Sum of all the chemical reactions taking place in a cell
108
Non-competitive inhibitor
Inhibitor which binds to a different part of an enzyme (allosteric site), which prevents enzyme from functioning
109
Prosthetic group
Type of cofactor that is bound tightly to an enzyme with strong interactions
110
Substrate specificity
Ability of an enzyme to catalyse only a specific reaction/set of reactions which have substrates complementary to the active site
111
Temperature coefficient (Q10)
Method of calculating an increase in reaction rate after a 10°c temp increase - calculated using:
Q10=R2/R1
112
Trypsin
Enzyme that catalyses the extracellular breakdown of proteins
113
Active transport
Active movement of substances from a low concentration to a higher concentration with the use of energy in the form of ATP
114
Amphipathic
Molecule with both hydrophobic & hydrophilic parts
115
Cell lysis
Bursting of a cell, particularly after the uptake of too much H2O into an animal cell through osmosis
116
Cholesterol
Mostly hydrophobic molecule that sits in the hydrophobic portion of the membrane & regulates membrane fluidity
117
Crenation
Shrinking of a cell when placed in a hypertonic solution due to large amounts of H2o moving out of the cell through osmosis
118
Endocytosis
Bulk uptake of substances into a cell by invagination of membrane to form a vesicle trapping the substances inside the cell with use of energy in form of ATP
119
Exocytosis
Bulk transport of substances out of a cell using a vesicle that fuses with the plasma membrane using energy in the form of ATP
120
Facilitated diffusion
Net movement of substances from a high concentration to a lower concentration through transport proteins without use of energy
121
Fluid mosaic model
Model that describes membrane structure as a sea of mobile phospholipid studded with various proteins
122
Hydrophilic
Molecule which is attracted to H2O
123
Hydrophobic
Molecule that repels H2O
124
Integral membrane protein
Type of protein bound to the membrane strong interactions
125
Osmosis
Net movement of H2O across a partially permeable membrane from a region of high H2O potential to an area of low H2O potential without the use of energy
126
Peripheral membrane protein
Type of protein that is weakly bound to the surface of the membrane
127
Phagocytosis
Ingestion of solid material (pathogens & foreign matter) by phagocytic cells
128
Phospholipid
Type of lipid formed by the condensation of 1 molecule of glycerol, 2 fatty acids & phosphate group
129
Pinocytosis
Bulk uptake of liquids into a cell using energy in form of ATP
130
Plasmolysis
Effect produced by placing plant cells in a hypertonic solution causing the cell to shrivel from H2O loss, resulting in membrane pulling away from rigid cell wal
131
Simple diffusion
Spreading out of substances from a high concentration to a low concentration without the use of energy
132
Turgid
Used to describe a cell that is swollen due to large amounts of fluid uptake
133
Water potential (Ψ)
Measure of tendency of H2O molecules to move from 1 area to another measures in kPa
134
Acrosome
Organelle found in the head of sperm cells which is specialised to digest the outer coating of an egg cell during fertilisation
135
Anaphase
3rd stage in mitosis, chromosomes are pulled apart to the poles of the cell by the spindle fibres
136
Anaphase 1
3rd stage of meiosis where the chromosomes that make up bivalent are pulled apart to the poles of the cell by the spindle fibres
137
Anaphase 2
7th stage of meiosis where the chromatids are pulled apart to the opposite poles of the cell
138
Anucleate
Type of cell which doesn't have a nucleus
139
Asexual reproduction
Production of genetically identical offspring from 1 parent through process of mitosis
140
Bivalent
Pair of homologous chromosomes
141
Ciliated epithelium
Type of epithelium which has many fine protrusions (cilia), specialised for sweeping dirt & debris out of the body
142
Crossing over
Exchange of genetic material between 2 chromosomes in a bivalent
143
Cytokinesis
Division of cytoplasm at the end of mitosis to produce 2 new daughter cells
144
Differentiation
Process where a cell develops certain features so that it is specialised to carry out a certain functions
145
Dipoid
Cells with 2 copies of each chromosome
146
Erythrocyte
Anucleate cell specialised to carry O2 from the lungs around the body (RBC)
147
G1 checkpoint
1st checkpoint in the cell cycle which occurs just before end of G1 phase, commits the cell to division under favourable conditions
148
G1 phase
1st growth phase in interphase where the cell synthesises proteins & RNA duplicates its organelles & increases in size before DNA replication in S phase
149
G2 checkpoint
2nd checkpoint in cell cycle , occurs at end of G2 phase & checks that DNA was correctly replicated during S phase before the cell enters mitosis
150
G2 phase
2nd growth phase of interphase where the cell continues to increase in size & synthesize biomolecules
151
Gametes
Sex cells that have haploid nucleus & are produced through meiosis
152
Gene loci
Location of a gene on a chromosome
153
Guard cells
Type of cell usually found in pairs that is specialised to control the opening/closing of stomata
154
Haploid
Cells with only 1 copy of each chromosome
155
Homologous chromosomes
2 chromosomes with similar gene loci but different alleles, 1 inherited from each parent
156
