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Chemistry 1 > Module 2 - Carbohydrates > Flashcards

Module 2 - Carbohydrates Flashcards

1. Classify carbohydrates into major groups 2. Describe digestion and absorption of carbohydrates 3. Describe metabolism of monosaccharides 4. Describe the regulation of blood glucose 5. Describe analytical techniques for the assessment of glucose in blood and urine 6. Describe diabetes mellitus 7. Describe disorders of carbohydrate intolerance and hypoglycemia

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1
Q

Define carbohydrates

A

Organic molecule consisting primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Contain either an aldehyde group or ketone group

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2
Q

What are the 3 types of carbohydrates?

A

Monosaccharides
Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides

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3
Q

Define monosaccharide

A

Simple sugar that when hydrolyzed are broken down into molecules that are no longer carbohydates

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4
Q

Define oligosaccharide

A

Carbohydrates composed of 2-10 monosaccharides

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5
Q

Define polysaccharides

A

Carbohydrates composed of >10 monosaccharides

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6
Q

Define isomer

A

Molecules with the same formula but different arrangements

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7
Q

What is the most common form of glucose in the body?

A

B-D (beta-D)

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8
Q

What are disaccharides?

A

Two monosaccharides bonding by a glycosidic bond

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9
Q

What are examples of disaccharides?

A

Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
Lactose (glucose + galactose)
Maltose (glucose + glucose)

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10
Q

What is sucrose?

A

Glucose + fructose

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11
Q

What is lactose?

A

Glucose + galactose

Found in milk

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12
Q

What is maltose?

A

Glucose + glucose

Major degradation product of starch

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13
Q

What are 2 examples of polysaccharides?

A

Glycogen and starch

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14
Q

What is glycogen?

A

Major form of stored carbohydrate in animals

Very compact structure, large amount of energy

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15
Q

What is starch?

A

Major form of stored carbohydrate in plants

Branched = amylopectin
Unbranched = amylose
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16
Q

How is starch digested?

A

Amylase breaks it into glucose

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17
Q

Where is amylase secreted?

A

Saliva and pancreatic juice

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18
Q

How are disaccharides digested?

A

Broken down into their 2 components by disaccharidases secreted in pancreatic juices

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19
Q

How is each disaccharide broken down?

A

Sucrose -> sucrase
Lactose -> lastase
Maltose -> maltase

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20
Q

What happens if there is a deficiency in an enzyme needed to break down a disaccharide?

A

Malabsorption

Nausea, vomiting, cramping (lactose intolerance)

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21
Q

Why must disaccharides be broken down?

A

Only monosaccharides can be absorbed

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22
Q

How are monosaccharides absorbed?

A

Glucose and galactose are absorbed by active transport

Fructose is absorbed by diffusion

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23
Q

What happens once monosaccharides are absorbed?

A

They move into the duodendal mucosal cells and are transported to the liver to be converted to glucose

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24
Q

What metabolic pathways can glucose go through during metabolism?

A

Glycogenesis
Anaerobic glycolysis
Aerobic glycolysis
Pentose shunt

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25
Q

What is glycogenesis?

A

Storage of excess glucose in cells

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26
Q

What is anaerobic glycolysis?

A

In anaerobic conditions (like in muscles) glucose is converted to pyruvate then lactate creating minimal ATP (2)

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27
Q

What is aerobic glycolysis?

A

Glucose is converted to pyruvate then further oxidized through the Kreb’s Cycle to produce lots of ATP (36) and reduced coenzymes like NADH

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28
Q

Define cellular respiration

A

Cabohydrate metabolism
Conversion of glucose into energy
ATP is stored in the bonds broken in glycolysis

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29
Q

What is the Pentose Shunt?

A

A reaction off the Embden-Meyerhof pathway (anaerobic) that creates NADPH

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30
Q

Define gluconeogensis

A

Synthesis of new glucose from non-carbohydrates like lactate, amino acids, etc

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31
Q

What cells can perform gluconeogensis?

A

Mostly liver and renal tubular cells

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32
Q

What is the problem with gluconeogensis?

A

Energy expensive

6 ATP to make 2 pyruvate

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33
Q

What substances can liver cells use for gluconeogensis?

A

Lactate
Pyruvate
Amino acids
Glycerol

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34
Q

Describe gluconeogenesis using lactate

A

Lactate made anaerobically in RBC’s and muscles diffuses into the liver

The liver can convert the lactate back into pyruvate and then into glucose

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35
Q

Describe gluconeogensis using glycerol

A

Glycerol formed from triglyceride hydrolysis can be converted in the liver back into glucose

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36
Q

What is the typical fasting blood glucose level?

A

3.3-6.0 mmol/L

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37
Q

What is triggered when blood glucose levels are low?

A

Production and release of glucagon by pancreas alpha cells

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38
Q

What is triggered when blood glucose levels are high?

A

Production and release of insulin by pancreas beta cells

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39
Q

What does glucagon do?

A

Binds to liver cells, activating glycogenolysis

Also increases gluconeogenesis

Increases blood glucose levels

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40
Q

What happens during glycogenolysis?

A

Glycogen is broken down and glucose is released into the blood to raise the blood glucose level

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41
Q

What does insulin do?

A

Stimulates extra-hepatic uptake of glucose from the blood

Also induces glycogenesis, glycolysis, etc

Lowers blood glucose levels

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42
Q

What other hormones raise blood glucose?

A

Cortisol
Epinephrine
Growth hormone

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43
Q

How does cortisol raise blood glucose?

A

Stimulates liver to increase glucoeneogenesis and glycogenolysis

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44
Q

How does epinephrine raise blood glucose?

A

Stimulates glycogenolysis in response to stress

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45
Q

How does growth hormone increase blood glucose?

A

Increases gluconeogenesis and glycogenolsis and inhibits glucose uptake by cells

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46
Q

What is the renal threshold?

A

The maximum concentration of a substance in the blood that can be re-absorbed from the urine

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47
Q

Why is there usually no glucose in the urine of healthy people?

A

The kidneys completely re-absorb the glucose

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48
Q

What is the renal threshold of glucose?

A

10 mmol/L

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49
Q

What is the difference of glucose in whole blood vs serum/plasma?

A

Whole blood glucose is around 10% lower

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50
Q

Why must the plasma/serum be separated from the cells within 1-2 hours for accurate glucose measurements?

A

The cells will use the glucose if not separated and decreased the result

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51
Q

How much glucose is lost per hour if cells are not separated from the serum/plasma?

A

About 5%

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52
Q

How can CSF glucose levels be used?

A

Identify bacterial meningitis

Lower glucose levels

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53
Q

What are the 2 popular methods for measuring glucose?

A

Glucose oxidase

Hexokinase

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54
Q

What are the basics of the glucose oxidase method?

A

Very specific, reacts with only B-D Glucose

Conversion of glucose (with oxygen consumption) to glucoinc acid and hydrogen peroxide

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55
Q

What are the 2 ways to measure the glucose oxidase test end products?

A
  1. Polaropgraphically (disappearance of oxygen)

2. Colormetric (colored endproduct)

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56
Q

How does the polarographic glucose oxidase method work?

A

Measures the disappearance of oxygen with an O2 electrode

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57
Q

How does the colormetric glucose oxidase method work?

A

Hydrogen peroxide + peroxidase = colored oxidized chromogen

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58
Q

What is the problem with the colormetric glucose oxidase method?

A

Subject to positive and negative interference

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59
Q

What causes negative interference in the Trinder’s Reaction for glucose?

A

Increased uric acid, bilirubin, and ascorbic acid causes decreased values
Because they are also oxidized by peroxidase instead of the chromogens

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60
Q

What causes positive interference in the Trinder’s Reaction for glucose?

A

Strong oxidizing substances

Oxidize the chromogens past the point the glucose would

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61
Q

Write the formula for the Trinder’s Reaction for glucose

A

Glucose + H2O + O2 –(glucose oxidase)> glucoinc acid + H202

H202 + chromagen –(peroxidase)> oxidized chromogen + H2O

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62
Q

What is the colormetric glucose oxidase test also called?

A

Trinder’s Reaction

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63
Q

Is the glucose oxidase or hexokinase method more accurate?

A

Hexokinase

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64
Q

Why is the hexokinase method more accurate for glucose measurement?

A

It is more specific and has less interference

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65
Q

How does the hexokinase method work?

A

Glucose is converted to G6P by hexokinase

G6P and NADP are converted to 6PG and NADPH

NADPH measured photometrically is equal to glucose in the sample

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66
Q

Write the reactions for the hexokinase method

A

Glucose + ATP –(hexokinase)> G6P

G6P + NADP –(G6P dehydrogenase)> NADPH

NADPH = Glucose

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67
Q

What samples can be used in the hexokinase method?

A

Serum, plasma, urine, CSF, and serous fluids

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68
Q

Are there interferences with the hexokinase method?

A

Gross hemolysis

Markedly elevated bilirubin

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69
Q

What method do glucose meters use to measure glucose?

A

Glucose dehydrogenase

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70
Q

How does the glucose dehydrogenase method work?

A

Glucose and NAD make gluconolactone and NADH

NADH is measured photometrically and is equal to glucose

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71
Q

Write the reaction for the glucose dehydrogenase method

A

Glucose + NAD –(GDH)> Gluconolactone + NADH + H

NADH measured

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72
Q

Describe the 2 hour GTT

A

Patient fasts
Patient drinks a 75g glucose drink
Glucose level taken 2 hours later

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73
Q

Describe the gestational diabetes screen

A

No fasting
Patient drinks 50g glucose drink
Glucose level taken after 1 hour

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74
Q

What are the normal fasting and non fasting glucose levels?

A

Fasting 3.3-6.0 mmol/L

Non-fasting 3.3-11.0 mmol/L

75
Q

What is the difference of glucose values in an arterial sample?

A

15% higher

76
Q

What is the normal glucose result after a 2 hour GTT?

A

< 7.8 mmol/L

77
Q

What is the normal glucose result after a gestational diabetes screen?

A

< 11.0 mmol/L

78
Q

When might a GTT be indicated after a gestational diabetes screen?

A

If result is between 7.8-11.0 mmol/L

79
Q

What are the critical glucose levels?

A

= 2.5 mmol/L

>/= 25.0 mmol/L

80
Q

What is the difference for CSF glucose levels compared to serum/plasma?

A

CSF levels are about 60% of serum levels

81
Q

What are the criteria for DM diagnosis?

A

2 of the following on different days

  1. Fasting glucose > 7.0 mmol/L
  2. 2h PP > 11.1mmol/L
  3. Random glucose > 11.1 mmol/L
  4. HbA1C >/= 6.5%
82
Q

What are pre-diabetes results?

A
  1. Fasting glucose between 6.1-7.1 mmol/L

2. 2h GTT between 7.8-11.1 mmol/L

83
Q

Define hyperglycemia

A

Elevated blood glucose

84
Q

What causes hyperglycemia other than diabetes?

A

Hypoinsulinemia
Hyperadrenalism
Hyperpituitarism (acromegaly)
Pheochomocytoma

85
Q

Define diabetes mellitus

A

Metabolic disorders characterized by hyperglycemia due to:

insufficient insulin secretion
Defective insulin action
Target tissue insulin resistance

86
Q

What are lab findings in diabetes mellitus?

A 
Hyperglycemia
Glycosuria
Increased urine SG
Increased serum and urine osmolality
Ketonemia
Ketonuria
Acidosis
Abnormal electrolytes
87
Q

What are complications of diabetes mellitus?

A

Hyperlipidemia
Heart and vascular disease
Kidney and retina damage
Nerve damage/loss of sensation in extremities

88
Q

Describe type 1 diabetes

A

Absolute insulin deficiency with hyperglycemia and frequently ketoacidosis

10-20% of diabetes usually early onset
Usually insulin dependent

89
Q

What might cause insulin deficiency?

A

Autoantibodies against pancreatic beta cells causing destruction

Other autoantibodies (against insulin, etc)

90
Q

What are symptoms of type 1 diabetes?

A

Polyuria, polydipsia (thirsty), polyphagia (hungry), weight loss

91
Q

Describe type 2 diabetes

A

Insulin resistance

Secreted insulin is less effective than normal in activating glucose uptake

80-90% of diabetes, later onset, less severe
Usually controlled with diet and exercise

92
Q

Describe gestational diabetes

A

Glucose intolerance induced by pregnancy
Increased metabolic demand, insulin can only raise so much
High blood glucose transfers to fetus which can lead to after birth hypoglycemia

93
Q

What are insulin levels like in type 1 diabetes?

A

Low levels

94
Q

What are insulin levels like in type 2 diabetes?

A

Usually high levels

95
Q

How is DM monitored?

A

HbA1C (glycosylated hemoglobin)
Fructosamine (glycosylated albumin)
Urine microalbumin

96
Q

How does HbA1C monitor DM?

A

Blood glucose slowly binds to HbA proportional to glucose levels

So levels can be used to monitor blood glucose over time (2-3 months)

97
Q

What is the normal range of HbA1C?

A

4.0-6.0% of Hb

Diabetic target <7.0%

98
Q

How does fructosamine monitor DM?

A

Albumin becomes glycosylated over time but has a shorter lifespan

Monitors 1-3 week glucose levels

99
Q

How does urine microalbumin monitor DM?

A

Damage to glomerular membrane causes increased urine albumin

Allows for early intervention

100
Q

Why are ketones produced in type 1 DM?

A

Glucose is not entering cells to lipolysis is done for energy

This leads to fatty acids being taken in by the liver and being converted to cholesterol and ketones

101
Q

What are the 3 ketones?

A

Acetone
Acetoacetic acid
B-hydroxybutyric acid

102
Q

What happens when ketones accumulate?

A

Ketones are excreted without taking their H so blood pH decreases creating ACIDOSIS
Na and K leave with ketones creating dehydration and electrolyte imbalance

103
Q

What are findings in ketoacidosis?

A 
Hyperglycemia
Acidosis
Ketonuria
Glycosuria
Dehydration
Electrolyte imbalance

SEVERE = DIABETIC COMA

104
Q

What is diabetes insipidous?

A

Decreased secretion of antidiuretic hormone causing polyphagia and polyuria

105
Q

Define hypoglycemia

A

Decreased glucose levels too low to fuel body

106
Q

When does hypoglycemia happen most often?

A

When diabetics take insulin to lower blood sugar

too much insulin, missed meal, eating too little

107
Q

Define hyperinsulinemia

A

Hyper secretion of insulin

due to hyperactive beta cells in pancreas
or
Beta cell tumors

108
Q

Define hypoadrenalism

A

Addison’s Disease

Lack of epinephrine and glucocorticoids = decreased glycolysis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogensis

109
Q

How does hypothyroidism affect glucose?

A

Decreases glycolysis

110
Q

How do liver problems affect glucose?

A

Drugs and chemicals can poison liver
Inhibition of gluconeogenesis
Ethanol induced glycogen depletion

111
Q

What is galactosemia?

A

Genetic disorder resulting in enzyme deficiency and unable to convert galactose

Increased galactose can cause growth and mental issues
Must prohibit all sources of galactose

112
Q

What is lactose intolerance?

A

Decreased levels of lactase result in lactose accumulation and metabolism by gut bacteria causing cramping and GI symptoms

113
Q

When is a lactate test used?

A

Sepsis, heart or lung failure, liver failure

114
Q

What do lactate levels show?

A

Elevated tissue hypoxia (acid base and oxygenation status)

Low O2 = anaerobic glycolysis producing higher levels of lactate

115
Q

List the 3 main classifications of carbohydrates

A

Monosaccharides
Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides

116
Q

List the 3 main dietary monosaccharides

A

Glucose
Galactose
Fructose

117
Q

Define isomer

A

Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangement

118
Q

State the most common form of glucose in the body

A

B-D Glucose

119
Q

List the 3 common disaccharides and the monosaccharides that make them

A

Lactose - galactose and glucose
Sucrose - glucose and fructose
Maltose - glucose and glucose

120
Q

Name the enzyme that digests starch and its two sources in the body

A

Amylase

Saliva and pancreatic juices

121
Q

State which class of carbohydrate is absorbed

A

Monosaccharides

122
Q

Name the molecule that stores energy in high energy phosphate bonds

A

ATP

123
Q

Briefly describe anaerobic glycolysis (embden meyerhof)

A

Non-O2 dependent

Glucose split into 2 pyruvate and minimal ATP
Pyruvate converted to lactate

124
Q

State which step of glycolysis is not reversible in most cells, including the name of the enzyme that catlyzes this step.
Also indicate which tissue can reverse this step.

A

Conversion of glucose to G6P by hexokinase is not reversible

EXCEPT by liver cells

125
Q

Define glycogenesis and glycogenolysis

A

Glycogenesis: excess glucose converted to glycogen

Glycogenolysis: breakdown of glycogen back to G6P

126
Q

Define gluconeogenesis and state the main disadvantage

A

Synthesis of new glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (lactate, amino acids, glycerol, fatty acids)

Energy expensive, not efficient

127
Q

List four non-carbohydrate sources for gluconeogensis

A

Lactate
Amino acids
Glycerol
Fatty acids

128
Q

Name which hormone is released in response to low blood glucose

A

Glucagon

129
Q

Name which hormone is released in response to high blood glucose

A

Insulin

130
Q

State the main action of glucagon and the primary target tissue

A

Raises blood glucose by acting on liver to break down glycogen to produce more glucose

131
Q

State the main action of insulin and the primary target tissue

A

Lowers blood glucose by acting on extra-hepatic cells to increase glucose uptake

132
Q

List the 3 other hormones involved in glucose regulation and state whether they act to raise or lower blood glucose

A

Cortisol/ACTH - Raise glucose by glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

Epinephrine - Raise glucose by glycogenolysis

Growth hormone - Raise glucose by glycogenolysis and gluconeogensis and inhibiting uptake

133
Q

Define renal threshold

A

Maximum level of substance in the blood that can be fully re-absorbed by the kidneys

134
Q

State the renal threshold of glucose and whether is is normally found in urine

A

10 mmol/L

Not normal in urine

135
Q

State the difference in glucose values between serum/plasma and whole blood

A

10% less in whole blood

136
Q

State the length of time required for a patient to fast

A

8 hours minimum

137
Q

State the preferred handling requirement for serum/plasma samples

A

Spun in 1-2 hours after collection and separated from cells

Refrigerated

138
Q

State the collection preservative that should be used if glucose testing is significantly delayed

A

Sodium fluoride

139
Q

State the role of glucose measurement in CSF

A

Help detect bacterial meningitis

Decreased glucose

140
Q

List the two main methods for measuring glucose

A

Glucose oxidase

Hexokinase

141
Q

State the form of glucose that glucose oxidase is specific for

A

B-D glucose

142
Q

Describe the two measurement techniques that can be used in glucose oxidase methods, and which is more susceptible to interferences

A

Amperometrically - measure O2 disappearance by O2 electrode

Colormetrically - measure oxidized chromogens by H2O2

Aperometric has more interference by bilirubin, ascorbic acid, and uric acid

143
Q

State what is actually being measured in the hexokinase method, including wavelength

A

Measuring NADPH at 340nm

144
Q

Describe the 2h PP glucose test and an advantage over the OGTT

A

Patient drinks 75g glucose
Glucose level taken after 2 hours

Advantage is no fasting required

145
Q

Provide the reference range for fasting serum/plasma glucose and for a 2h PP

A

Fasting 3.3-6.0 mmol/L

2h PP = < 6.7 mmol/L

146
Q

State the approximate difference in values from serum for arterial/capillary and CSF samples

A

Arterial 15% more

CSF 60% of serum level

147
Q

List 3 causes of hyperglycemia in DM

A
  1. Insufficient insulin secretion
  2. Defective insulin action
  3. Target tissue insulin resistance
148
Q

List the typical findings in DM

Clinical and lab

A

Polyuria, polyphagia, polydipsia, weight loss, confusion

Hyperglycemia, glycosuria, increased serum and urine osmolality, ketonemia, ketonuria

149
Q

Describe the disorder in type 1 DM

A

Insulin deficiency due to decreased secretion

May be due to autoantibodies against pancreatic B cells

150
Q

Describe the disorder in type 2 DM

A

Insulin resistance

May be due to target tissues not as responsive
or
Secreted insulin less effective

151
Q

Compare and contrast type 1 and 2 DM with regards to:

cause
blood insulin level
onset
control
frequency of ketoacidosis
A 
TYPE 1:
C: insulin deficiency, maybe autoantibodies
BIL: low
O: early
C: insulin
FOK: frequent
TYPE 2:
C: insulin resistance
BIL: usually high
O: late
C: diet and exercise
FOK: rare
152
Q

List the complications associated with DM

A

Hyperlipidemia causing:
artherosclerosis

Damage due to glycation of proteins:
vascular, heart, kidney, retina, nervous

153
Q

List the criteria for diagnosing DM

A

Two on different days

Fasting glucose > 7.0 mmol/L
2h PP glucose > 11.1 mmol/L
Random glucose > 11.1 mmol/L
HbA1C >/= 6.5%

154
Q

State the analyte useful for long term monitoring of blood glucose levels, and the time frame it is useful for

A

HbA1C

2-3 months

155
Q

State the testing performed on urine for diabetic patients and what it is used for

A

Urine microalbumin

Glomerular damage monitoring

156
Q

Briefly describe the formation of ketones in type 1 DM

A

Low glucose, not entering cells

Lipolysis for energy creates fatty acids that are converted to ketones and cholesterol

157
Q

List the common findings in ketoacidosis

A 
Hyperglycemia
Acidosis
Ketonuria
Glycosuria
Dehydration
Electrolyte imbalance
158
Q

State the most common cause of hypoglycemia

A

Diabetics taking insulin

overdose, missed meal, not eating enough

159
Q

State the disorder in galactosemia

A

Enzyme deficiency = unable to convert galactose

160
Q

State the disorder in lactose intolerance

A

Decreased lactase = lactose accumulation in GI

161
Q

Which of the folloing promotes gluconeogenesis?

a. cortisol
b. insulin
c. calcitonin
d. somatostatin
e. epinephrine

A

a. cortisol

162
Q

Glucose oxidase converts glucose into gluconic acid and

a. hydrogen peroxide
b. carbon dioxide
c. bicarbonate
d. water
e. ADP

A

a. hydrogen peroxide

163
Q

Hexokinase catalyzes formation of ___ from glucose and ATP

a. NADPH
b. acetyl CoA
c. G6P
d. F6P
e. lactose

A

c. G6P

164
Q

What’s the best specimen for glucose analysis?

a. serum
b. fluoride plasma
c. heparinized plasma
d. EDTA plasma
e. whole blood

A

b. fluoride plasma

165
Q

Which of the following is secreted by the pancreas when there is hypoglycemia?

a. human growth hormone
b. glucagon
c. insulin
d. LH
e. epinephrine

A

b. glucagon

166
Q

Which assay of glucose my be monitored by measuring the rate of oxygen disappearance?

a. glucose oxidase
b. hexokinase
c. o-toluidine
d. clinitest
e. benedict’s reaction

A

a. glucose oxidase

167
Q

Which method is most specific for B-D glucose?

a. glucose oxidase
b. hexokinase
c. o-toluidine
d. clinitest
e. benedict’s reaction

A

a. glucose oxidase

168
Q

G6PD is the coupling enzyme for which of the glucose assays?

a. glucose oxidase
b. hexokinase
c. o-toluidine
d. clinitest
e. benedict’s reaction

A

b. hexokinase

169
Q

The term gluconeogensis referes to conversion of

a. glycogen into glucose
b. glucose into pyruvate
c. non-carbohyrates into glucose
d. fructose into glucose
e. fatty acids into ketones

A

c. non-carbohydrates into glucose

170
Q

Which of the following is not a disaccharide

a. sucrose
b. maltose
c. lactose
d. galactose

A

d. galactose

171
Q

Carbohydrates are

a. sweet to the taste
b. sugars
c. aldehydes
d. ketones
e. c and d

A

e. c and d

aldehydes and ketones

172
Q

The pancreatic enzyme amylase acts upon

a. starches
b. disaccharides
c. monosaccharides
d. glycerol
e. fatty acids

A

a. starches

173
Q

Insulin is synthesized and stored in the

a. adrenal cortex
b. adrenal medulla
c. alpha cells of the pancreas
d. beta cells of the pancreas

A

d. beta cells of the pancreas

174
Q

In normal CSF the glucose concentration is approximately ___ of the plasma glucose level

a. 30%
b. 45%
c. 60%
d. equal to that

A

c. 60%

175
Q

Which of the following methods estimates the urine sugar concentration by measuring the total reducing substances

a. copper sulfate
b. glucose oxidase
c. hexokinase
d. ferricyanide

A

a. copper sulfate

176
Q

Which of the following chemicals is used in blood collection tubes to help preserve the integrity of the blood glucose concentration

a. citrate
b. EDTA
c. fluoride
d. oxalate

A

c. fluoride

177
Q

In which of the following methods is the glucose concentration linked to a change in the oxygen concentration in the reaction mixture

a. copper sulfate
b. glucose oxidase
c. hexokinase
d. ferricyanide

A

b. glucose oxidase

178
Q

Due to an enzyme deficiency which disaccharide accumulates in the intestine causing significant GI discomfort

a. glucose
b. galactose
c. lactose
d. maltose

A

c. lactose

179
Q

Which form of diabetes manifests itself later in life and is associated with obesity, physical inactivity, and glycosuria

a. congenital
b. gestational
c. insulin dependent
d. non-insulin dependent

A

d. non-insulin dependent

180
Q

The term ketone bodies refers to all of the following compounds except

a. acetic acid
b. acetoacetic acid
c. acetone
d. beta-hydroxybutyric acid

A

a. acetic acid

181
Q

A patient with a severe uncontrolled case of DM shows all of the following conditions except

a. glycosuia
b. hyperglycemia
c. ketosis
d. metabolic alkalosis

A

d. metabolic alkalosis

182
Q

Which of the following methods provides information about glucose metabolism over a 3 month period

a. fructosamin
b. glucose oxidase
c. glycosylated hemoglobin
d. oral glucose tolerance

A

c. glycosylated hemoglobin

183
Q

Which hormone functions to increase the cellular uptake of glucose

a. catecholamines
b. cortisol
c. glucagon
d. insulin

A

d. insulin

Chemistry 1 (5 decks)

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