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Chemistry 1 > Body Fluids and Electrolytes > Flashcards

Body Fluids and Electrolytes Flashcards

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1
Q

What are electrolytes?

A

Molecules that dissociate into charged ions in water, carry electrical current

Anions or cations

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2
Q

What are anions?

A

Negatively charged ions

Move to the anode (positive pole)

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3
Q

What are examples of anions?

A

Chloride
Bicarbonate
Phosphate

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4
Q

What are cations?

A

Positively charged ions

Move to the cathode (negative pole)

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5
Q

What are examples of cations?

A

Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium
Calcium

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6
Q

What are the functions of electrolytes?

A 
Maintain osmotic pressure and water balance
Maintain pH
Regulate heart and muscle function
Redox reactions
Enzyme cofactors/activators
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7
Q

What interference should be avoided for electrolyte analysis? Why?

A

Hemolysis
Increased K
Decreased Na and Cl by dilution

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8
Q

Why should serum/plasma be separated from cells quickly?

A

Otherwise K will be released into plasma and falsely increase results

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9
Q

What might cause falsely increased K before collection?

A

Exercise
Pumping fist
Hemoconcentration due to extended tourniquet use

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10
Q

How is water distributed in the body?

A

Intracellular fluid (70%)
Extracellular fluid (30%)
- Plasma (20%)
- Interstitial fluid (80%)

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11
Q

How does osmosis work?

A

Water moves across semi-permeable membranes into the compartment with a higher concentration of non-diffusible particles

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12
Q

How is water control mainly achieved by the kidneys?

A

By ADH

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13
Q

What happens during a concentrated state?

A

Hypernatremia
Hyperosmolality (more solutes)
Hypovolemia (low water volume)

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14
Q

What happens during a diluted state?

A

Hyponatermia
Hyposmolality (less solutes)
Hypervolemia (high water volume)

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15
Q

How is water balance monitored?

A

CNS osmoregulators
Baroreceptors in kidneys
Baroreceptors in heart and blood vessels
Adrenal cortical cells

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16
Q

How does aldosterone help water regulation?

A

Increases sodium resorption and potassium excretion during hyponatremia/hyposmolality

Decreases sodium resorption and potassium excretion during hypernatremia/hyperosmolality

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17
Q

How does ADH help water regulation?

A

When osmolality rises ADH is released stimulating the resorption of water to dilute the blood

When osmolality lowers ADH is suppressed in order to secrete excess water

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18
Q

What is sodium?

A

Dominant electrolyte in ECF

Major extracellular cation

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19
Q

What does sodium do?

A

Major role in plasma osmolality and water balance

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20
Q

Where is sodium high? Low?

A

Very low in cells due to Na/K pump

High in ECR

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21
Q

How are sodium levels regulated?

A

Filtered by kidneys then reabsorbed as controlled by aldosterone

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22
Q

What stimulates aldosterone release? From where?

A

Released from the adrenal cortex in response to:

Low osmolality
Low sodium
High potassium
Low cardiac output

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23
Q

What is potassium?

A

Major intracellular cation

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24
Q

Where is potassium high? Low?

A

High in cells

Low in fluids

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25
Q

How are potassium levels regulated?

A

Filtered by kidneys then reabsorbed the excreted again

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26
Q

How does aldosterone affect potassium levels?

A

Lowers potassium

Increase sodium resorption means potassium excreted in exchange

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27
Q

How might potassium be lost from cells?

A 
Dehydration - follows water out
Acidosis - displaced by H+
Cellular breakdown (crush injuries, protein breakdown)
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28
Q

How might potassium be gained in cells?

A

Alkalosis - moves into cell as H+ leaves

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29
Q

What does potassium do?

A

Regulating cell membrane potentials (neuromuscular excitability)

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30
Q

What happens if potassium is imbalanced?

A

Cardiac arrythmias

Muscle weakness

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31
Q

What is chloride?

A

Major extracellular anion

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32
Q

How are chloride levels regulated?

A

Filtered by kidneys the reabsorbed

Follows sodium passively and “pumped” back in

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33
Q

What does chloride do?

A

Maintains electroneutrality

Retained if cations are increased
Lost if anions are increased

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34
Q

What is the anion gap formula?

A

Na - [Cl + HCO3]

or

[Na + K] - [Cl + HCO3]

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35
Q

What causes the anion gap?

A

Anions in the sample not measured such as albumin, proteins, phosphate, etc

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36
Q

What causes an increased anion gap?

A

Displacement of Cl by other anions

Low Cl is not accounted for by an increase in HCO3 or decrease in cations

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37
Q

What are examples of things that cause an increased anion gap?

A

Ketones
Lactic acid
Toxic ingestions (alcohol, salicylate)

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38
Q

Is a decreased anion gap possible?

A

Not really, maybe hypoalbuminemia

Usually test issue

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39
Q

What is bicarbonate?

A

Major buffer base of plasma

The form most CO2 is transported as in plasma

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40
Q

How are bicarbonate levels controlled?

A

Filtered by kidneys

Converted to carbonic acid and CO2

CO2 enters cells and is used to create new HCO3 when it moves into the blood

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41
Q

What is magnesium?

A

Second most abundant intracellular cation

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42
Q

What does magnesium do?

A

Enzyme activator
Influences nerve control
Influences neuromuscular contration
Formation of bones and teeth

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43
Q

Where is most magnesium found?

A

65% in bones and teeth

30% in intracellular fluid

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44
Q

How is magnesium found in blood?

A

30% protein bound

Ionized form is active

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45
Q

How is magnesium regulated?

A

PTH regulates plasma levels by increasing resorption

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46
Q

Where is calcium found in the body?

A

99% bones and teeth

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47
Q

How does calcium travel in the blood?

A

50% free, ionized, active
45% bound mostly to albumin
5% in complexes

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48
Q

What is ionized calcium levels dependent on?

A

Dependent on plasma protein and pH levels

Reduced in alkalosis and when there is increased plasma proteins

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49
Q

What does calcium do?

A

Enzyme activator (coagulation)
Muscle contraction
Influences membrane permeability
Influences cell motility

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50
Q

What happens when calcium is elevated?

A

Muscle weakness

Loss of neuromuscular excitability

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51
Q

What happens when calcium is decreased?

A

Increased muscle excitability
Spasms
Cardiac arrhythmia

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52
Q

How is calcium absorbed into the body?

A

Requires activated vitamin D in intestine

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53
Q

What causes decreased calcium absorption?

A

High pH

High phosphate level

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54
Q

How is calcium regulated?

A

PTH and calcitonin

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55
Q

How does PTH affect calcium blood levels?

A

PTH is secreted when calcium is low

It increases reabsorption by kidneys and breakdown of bone by osteoclasts

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56
Q

How does calcitonin affect calcium blood levels?

A

Calcitonin is secreted when calcium is high

It decreases kidney reabsorption and simulates osteoblasts to increase bone synthesis (inhibits osteoclasts)

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57
Q

What is phosphorus?

A

Major intracellular anion

Component of many molecules like ATP

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58
Q

Where is most phosphorus found?

A

80% in bones

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59
Q

How is phosphorus absorbed?

A

Vitamin D increases absorption and kidney resorption

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60
Q

What affects phosphorus levels the most?

A

PTH

Which decreases phosphorus by increasing excretion

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61
Q

What acts conversely with calcium?

A

Phosphorus

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62
Q

Which electrolytes are mostly in ECF?

A

Sodium and chloride

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63
Q

Which electrolytes are mostly in ICF?

A

Potassium, magnesium, and phosphorus

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64
Q

What is fluid depletion?

A

Loss of fluid

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65
Q

What causes fluid depletion?

A

Vomiting/diarrhea
Burns
Decreased intake
Sweating/high temperature

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66
Q

What are electrolyte findings in water depletion?

A

Increased sodium and osmolality

Decreased urine volumeW

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67
Q

What is diabetes insipidus?

A

Decreased ADH causes less water to be reabsorbed by kidneys

Urine is very dilute but large quantities

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68
Q

What is fluid excess?

A

Increased fluid

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69
Q

What causes fluid excess?

A

Failure of homeostasis
Increased intake
Increased ADH

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70
Q

What can fluid excess cause?

A

Edema, accumulation of interstitial fluid causing swelling

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71
Q

What causes hypernatremia?

A

Decreased plasma water
or
Increased plasma Na

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72
Q

When might hypernatremia be seen?

A

Dehydration
Diabetes insipidus
Primary hyperaldosteronism (increased resorption of Na)
Excess intake

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73
Q

What causes hyponatremia

A

Increased plasma water
or
Decreased plasma Na

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74
Q

When might hyponatremia be seen?

A 
Diuretic medication (decreased resorption)
Excessive sweating
Renal conditions
Hypoaldosteronism/Addison's Disease
Severe vomiting and diarrhea
Acidosis
Decreased intake
Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (water retention)
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75
Q

What is pseudohyponatremia?

A

Electrolyte exclusion effect

Increased protein or lipid reduce water component

Apparent decrease in all electrolytes using indirect methods (dilution)

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76
Q

What is hyperkalemia?

A

Elevated potassium

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77
Q

What causes hyperkalemia?

A 
Crush injuries
Metabolic acidosis (pH decreases K increases due to displacement from cells and H+ excreted over K)
Hypoaldosteronism/Addison's Disease (Na secreted over K)
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78
Q

What causes hypokalemia

A 
Hyperaldosteronism (Na reabsorbed, K excreted)
Metabolic alkalosis (K excreted over H+)
Vomitting/diarrhea
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79
Q

What causes hypochloremia?

A

Displacement by other anions (ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis)

Associated with Na loss

  • Hypoaldosteronism/Addison’s Disease
  • Vomiting/diarrhea
80
Q

What causes hyperchloremia?

A

Dehydration
Increased salt intake
Decreased bicarbonate
- Respiratory alkalosis (CO2 lost, Cl moves out of cells to compensate for lost anions [HCO3])

81
Q

What is the sweat chloride test?

A

Diagnoses cystic fibrosis

Chloride and sodium levels markedly elevated (> 60 mmol/L)

82
Q

What causes hypermagnesemia?

A

Usually due to magnesium infusion especially with renal impairment

Also seen in renal failure

83
Q

What causes hypomagnesemia?

A

Severe vomiting/diarrhea
Drug therapy
Malnutrition

84
Q

What causes hypercalcemia?

A

Hyperparathyroidism (increased PTH = increased calcium)
Excessive vitamin D
Multiple myeloma

85
Q

What causes hypocalcemia?

A 
Hypoparathyroidism (decrease PTH = decreased calcium)
Protein loss (nephrotic syndrome)
Chronic hypomagnesemia
86
Q

What causes hyperphoshatemia?

A

Acute or chronic renal failure (impaired excretion)
Increased intake
Lymphoblastic leukemia

87
Q

What causes hypophospatemia?

A

Hyperparathyroidism (Increased PTH = increased excretion)

88
Q

How is sodium typically analyzed?

A

ISE typically glass membrane

Sometimes differential potentiometry using dry film dual ISE electrode slides (Vitros)

89
Q

What causes interference in sodium analysis?

A 
Severe hemolysis (dilution)
Hyperlipidemia/hyperproteinemia in indirect methods
90
Q

What are the reference ranges for sodium in serum, urine, sweat, and CSF?

A

Serum: 135-150 mmol/L

Urine 40-220 mmol/day (24 hr)

Sweat 10-40 mmol/L

CSF 135-150 mmol/L

91
Q

How is potassium usually measured?

A

ISE usually valinomycin membrane

Sometimes differential potentiometry using dry film dual ISE electrode slides (Vitros)

92
Q

What might cause interference in potassium measurement?

A

Hemolysis (K release from cells)
Excessive time on cells

Hyperlipidemia/hyperproteinemia in indirect methods

93
Q

What is the reference range for potassium?

A

3.5-5.0 mmol/L

94
Q

How is chloride usually measured?

A

ISE typically a sliver chloride/silver sulphide membrane

95
Q

What is something to note about a chloride ISE?

A

It will detect all halogens not just chloride

Samples with bromide containing drugs will interfere

96
Q

What are other ways that chloride can be measured?

A 
Colormetric titration (amperometric)
Mercuric thiocyanate (photometric)
97
Q

How does colormetric titration work?

A

An electrochemical titration of chloride ions with silver ions to form AgCl

One all the chloride ions are used silver ions are present in excess

This results in a change of conductivity detected by electrodes which stop the reaction

Time is proportional to chloride concentration

98
Q

What are interferences with chloride measurement?

A

Other halogens

Hyperlipidemia/hyperproteinemia with indirect methods

99
Q

How does the mercuric thiocyante method work?

A

Mercuric thiocyanate and ferric nitrate added

Chloide reacts with mercuric thiocyanate to form precipitate mercuric chloride

Thiocyanate ions react with ferric ions to form red ferric thiocyante

Ferric thiocyante is measured at 480nm

Proportional to Chloride

100
Q

What are the reference ranges for chloride in serum, urine, sweat, and CSF?

A

Serum 98-108 mmol/L
Urine 110-250 mmol/L (24hr)
Sweat 0-40 mmol/L
CSF 120-130 mmol/L

101
Q

How is bicarbonate usually analyzed?

A

ISE usually gas-permeable silicone rubber membrane
(pH electrode)

Acid reagent added to convert all forms to CO2

102
Q

What is the reference range for bicarbonate?

A

22-30 mmol/L

103
Q

What will cause interference with chloride?

A

Remaining on cells

Hemolysis (dilution)

104
Q

What are 4 methods that can be used for magnesium analysis?

A

Calagmite
Formazan (vitros)
Methylthymol blue
Enzyme

All spectrophotometric

105
Q

How does the calagmie method work?

A

Calagmite reacts with magnesium at an alkaline pH to form calagmite-magnesium complex

Measured at 532 nm

106
Q

How does the Formazan method work?

A

Formazen dye binds magnesium

Measured at 660nm

107
Q

How does the methythymol blue method work?

A

Magnesium binds with the chromogen to form a colored complex

108
Q

How does the enzyme method work?

A

Magnesium and ATP react to eventually form NADPH

NADPH is measured at 340nm

Proportional to magnesium

109
Q

What interferes with magnesium analysis?

A

Hemolysis (released from cells)
Leaving on cells

EDTA, citrate, and oxalate anticoagulants which bind magnesium

110
Q

What is the reference range for magnesium?

A

0.65-1.05 mmol/L

111
Q

What are methods that can analyze calcium?

A

O-Cresolphtalein complexone method
Arsenazo III method

Both spectrophotometric

112
Q

How does the O-Cresolphthalein complexone method work?

A

Calcium combines with the ortho-cresolphthalein complexone at alkaline pH to form a purple chromophone

Measured at 575nm

113
Q

How does the Arenazo III method work?

A

Dye combines with calcium to form colored complex

Measured at 660nm

114
Q

What causes interference with calcium analysis?

A

Magnesium in o-cresolphthalein method (eliminated with another reagent)

Extended tourniquet use

EDTA and oxalate anticoagulants remove calcium

115
Q

What is the reference range for ionized and total calcium?

A

Ionized 1.15-1.35 mmol/L

Total 2.10-2.60 mmol/L

116
Q

What are critical calcium levels?

A

Ionized < 1.75 > 3.25 mmol/L

Total < 0.85 > 1.50 mmol/L

117
Q

How is phosphorus analyzed?

A

Ammonium phosphomolybdate complex measured at 340nm

or

further reduced into heteropolymolybdate blue and read at 660nm

118
Q

What is the reference range for phosphorus?

A

0.80 - 1.50 mmol/L

Higher in children and newborns

119
Q

What interferes with phosphorus analysis?

A

EDTA, citrate, and oxalate

Hemolysis (released from cells)

120
Q

List the 4 ions commonly referred to as electrolytes

A

Na, K, Cl, HCO3

121
Q

State the importance of selecting a proper anticoagulant for the collection of samples for electrolyte measurement

A

Ammonium or lithium heparin preferred

Anticoagulants with Na or K will falsely increase results

122
Q

List the two main mechanisms that control water balance

A

Voluntary intake

Urinary output

123
Q

Name the source tissue that secretes renin

A

Juxta-glomerular apparatus of the kidneys

124
Q

Describe ADH with regards to source, stimulus for release, target tissue, action, and result

A 
S: posterior pituitary
R:increased plasma osmolarity
T: distal renal tubules
A: water resorption by tubules
R: water conservation, concentrated urine
125
Q

Describe aldosterone with regards to source, stimulus for release, target tissue, action, and result

A 
S: adrenal cortex
R: renin secretion during hypovolemia
T: kidneys
A: sodium resorption
R: hypernatermia and hyperosmolality during hypovolemia
126
Q

Name the major extracellular and intracellular cations and their importance in body funtion

A

Extracellular: Na (water balance)

Intracellular: K (neuromuscular excitability), Mg (enzymes, nerves, neuromuscular, bones and teeth)

127
Q

State the effect of plasma H+ ion concentration (pH) on potassium levels

A

Acidosis causes K to be displaced from cells as H moves in

128
Q

State the calculation used to determine anion gap

A

[Na + K] - [Cl + HCO3]

129
Q

State what an increased anion gap can indicate

A

Displacement of Cl by other anions

Acidosis
Toxic ingestion

130
Q

State what a decreased anion gap can indicate

A

Hypoalbuminemia

Usually measurement issue

131
Q

List the approximate distribution of calcium in the plasma, and indicate which is the active form

A

50% free/ionized = active
45% bound to protein
5% in complexes

132
Q

State the affect of increased protein levels on ionized calcium levels

A

Lowers ionized calcium

133
Q

State the affect of decreased pH on ionized calcium levels

A

Increased ionized calcium

134
Q

State the physiological affects of both increased and decreased calcium

A

Increased: muscle weakness, arrhythmias

Decreased: muscle excitability, spasms, arrhythimias

135
Q

List the two hormones involved in calcium regulation and their actions

A

PTH: increases blood calcium levels (increases calcium reabsorption, increased bone breakdown)

Calcitonin: decreases blood calcium levels (increases bone creation, calcium excretion)

136
Q

List the common lab findings associated with fluid depletion

A

Increased Na, osmolality, urea, Hct

Decreased urine volume

137
Q

Briefly describe diabetes insipidus

A

Decreased ADH causes failure to concentrate urine

High urine output with low SG and no glucose

138
Q

List three causes associated with hypernatremia

A

Dehydration
Decreased water intake
Hyperaldosteronism

139
Q

List three causes associated with hyponatremia

A

Vomiting/diarrhea
Hypoaldosteronism
Inappropriate ADH secretion

140
Q

List 3 causes associated with hyperkalemia

A

Crush injuries
Metabolic acidosis
Hyperaldosteronism

141
Q

List 3 causes associated with hypokalemia

A

Hyperaldosteronism
Metabolic alkalosis
Vomiting/diarrhea

142
Q

State the effect on electrolyte measurements caused by excessive lipids or proteins in samples, and which methods are more affected

A

Cause apparent decrease in all electrolytes in indirect methods
Due to excess solids

143
Q

State the 3 conditions that can cause displacement of chloride ions by other anions

A

Ketoacidosis
Lactic acidosis
Metabolic alkalosis

144
Q

Name the condition assessed by measuring sweat chloride and the typical finding

A

Cystic fibrosis

> 60 mmol/L

145
Q

State 1 major cause of hyper and hypomagnesemia

A

Magnesium product infusions

Malnutrition

146
Q

State two major causes of hypercalcemia and hypocalcemia

A

Hyperparathyroidism, excessive vitamin D

Hypoparathyroid
Protein loss

147
Q

State the type of membrane used for sodium ISEs

A

Glass

148
Q

State the type of membrane used for potassium ISEs

A

Valinomycin

149
Q

State the type of membrane used for chloride ISEs

A

Silver chloride / silver sulphide

150
Q

State the type of membrane used for bicarbonate ISEs

A

Silicone rubber

151
Q

State the effect on potassium levels if the sample is hemolyzed or allowed to sit on cells

A

Potassium increased due to release from cells

152
Q

State the potential interference that can be experienced with chloride ISEs

A

Bromide containing drugs

Electrode measures all halides

153
Q

List the spectrophotometric methods used for chloride analysis

A

Mercuric thiocyanate

154
Q

List the spectrophotometric methods used for magnesium analysis

A

Calagmite
Formazan
Methylthymol blue
Enzymatic

155
Q

List the spectrophotometric methods used for calcium analysis

A

O-cresolphthalein complexone

Arsenazo III

156
Q

List the spectrophotometric methods used for phosphate analysis

A

Ammonium phosphomolybdate

157
Q

List the electrolytes that are falsely increased due to hemolysis or increased time on cells

A

Mostly K

Mg, PO4

158
Q

State the reference range for sodium

A

135 - 150 mmol/L

159
Q

State the reference range for potassium

A

3.5 - 5.0 mmol/L

160
Q

State the reference range for chloride

A

98 - 108 mmol/L

161
Q

State the reference range for bicarbonate

A

22 - 30 mmol/L

162
Q

State the reference range for total calcium

A

2.10 - 2.60 mmol/L

163
Q

State the reference range for ionized calcium

A

1.15 - 1.35 mmol/L

164
Q

State the reference range for magnesium

A

0.65 - 1.05 mmol/L

165
Q

State the reference range for phosphate

A

0.80 - 1.50

166
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

An electrolyte is a substance that dissociates into ions in water and is also able to conduct an electrical current

A

True

167
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Magnesium is important in reactions of the coagulation system

A

False

Calcium is

168
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Water acts as a lubricant as a component of joint fluids and mucous

A

True

169
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Potassium is the most concentrated ion in the extracellular fluid

A

TRUE OR FALSE

Sodium is

170
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Potassium is important in re-establishing resting membrane potentials in muscles and neurons

A

True

171
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Anabolic reactions in our cells generate about 250 mL of water per day

A

True

172
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

The thirst center is located in the juxta-glomerular apparatus

A

False

hypothalamus

173
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Sodium on creates much of the osmotic pressure in body fluid

A

True

174
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Vasopressin is also known as antidiuretic hormone

A

True

175
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

In dehydration plasma osmolality is low

A

False

High

176
Q

Aldosterone does which of the following

a. vasodilator
b. increases aldosterone
c. increases sodium resorption
d. activates angiotensinogen
e. increases water resorption

A

c. increases sodium resorption

177
Q

Rennin does which of the following

a. vasodilator
b. increases aldosterone
c. increases sodium resorption
d. activates angiotensinogen
e. increases water resorption

A

d. activates angiotensinogen

178
Q

Antidiuretic hormone does which of the following

a. vasodilator
b. increases aldosterone
c. increases sodium resorption
d. activates angiotensinogen
e. increases water resorption

A

e. increases water resorption

179
Q

Atrial natriuretic peptide does which of the following

a. vasodilator
b. increases aldosterone
c. increases sodium resorption
d. activates angiotensinogen
e. increases water resorption

A

a. vasodilator

180
Q

Angiotensin II does which of the following

a. vasodilator
b. increases aldosterone
c. increases sodium resorption
d. activates angiotensinogen
e. increases water resorption

A

b. increases aldosterone

181
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Chloride helps maintain the electropositivity of the ECF

A

False

Shifts back and forth, often allowing Na movement to maintain electroneutrality

182
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Potassium is excreted by the proximal tubules

A

False

Distal tubules

183
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Sodium concentration in the plasma is normally about 105 mmol/L

A

False

135-150 mmol/L ~142 mmol/L

184
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

In ketoacidosis there is usually an anion gap

A

True

185
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Diabetes insipidus is due to increased aldosterone

A

False

Decreased ADH

186
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Pseudohyperkalemia is seen in grossly lipemic serums

A

False

Pseudohypokalemia

187
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Parathyroid hormone decreases renal excretion of phosphate

A

False

PTH decreases resorption by kidneys

188
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Absorption of calcium is dependent upon activated vitamin D

A

True

189
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Plasma magnesium is regulated by thyroxine

A

False

PTH promotes tubular resorption of Mg

190
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Calcitonin decreases blood calcium

A

True

191
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

A danger of dextrose infusion is hyperphosphatemia

A

False

Hypophospatemia by dilution

192
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

The ISE for potassium has a cellulose membrane

A

False

Valinomycin

193
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

Severe hemolysis will decrease the serum sodium level

A

True

194
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

The Vitros uses an ISE slid method for measuring chloride

A

True

195
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

The CX uses colormetric methods for measuring Mg, Ca, and P

A

True

Chemistry 1 (5 decks)

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