module 2 - biological, evolutionary, learning, and environmental theories of crime

Question 1

what are the characteristics of a strong theory? (6)

Answer 1

1. is parsimonious
2. clearly identifies the causal mechanisms and corresponding mediators & moderators underlying the phenomenon of interest
3. is testable and falsifiable
4. is based on empirical data and is modified in response to new data
5. possesses interdisciplinary compatibility
6. respects gender, ethnicity, and culture

Question 2

what does the field of behavioural genetics rely on? what can it do?

Answer 2

relied on the study of twins and adoptions, and can help separate genetic from environmental influences

Question 3

what is the heritability coefficient?

Answer 3

a descriptive statistic that represents the proportion of phenotypic variance in a given behaviour in a sample/population that can be attributed to genetic variation among individuals

Question 4

where is the MAOA gene located? what is it responsible for?

Answer 4

MAOA gene is located on the x chromosome.
It is responsible for encoding the MAOA enzyme, which is responsible for metabolizing key brain neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine

Question 5

what does a psychophysiological theory use? what does it try to do?

Answer 5

a psychophysiological theory uses physiology to explain psychological constructs. Tries to link measures of autonomic responses (heart rate & electrodermal activity) to various measures of antisocial conduct

Question 6

what does fearlessness theory suggest?

Answer 6

some individuals do not experience much fear when stressed, thus possessing the requisite level of fearlessness to engage in crime

Question 7

what does the stimulation-seeking theory hypothesize?

Answer 7

that being in a chronic state of low arousal is unpleasant, so individuals seek to alleviate this unpleasant state by engaging in risky behaviour such as crime

Question 8

what does executive functioning refer to?

Answer 8

cognitive functionings involving future goal-oriented behaviour, purposive attention, organizational skills, and inhibitory control

Question 9

what changes in our biology may make us more likely to engage in antisocial behaviour? (4)

Answer 9

1. inadequate prenatal conditions
2. perinatal complications
3. improper diet
4. environmental toxins

Question 10

what do proximate explanations identify? what do they ask?

Answer 10

identify which factors in a person’s immediate environment cause certain behaviours.
ask how the behaviour develops over an organism’s lifespan, questioning causation and development at the individual level

Question 11

what do more distal explanations ask?

Answer 11

ask questions about function and adaptation for an entire species

Question 12

what does evolutionary psychology posit?

Answer 12

the human mind comes equipped with numerous psychological mechanisms that have been designed and maintained through selection over many thousands of years of evolution

Question 13

what do evolutionists posit about criminal behaviour?

Answer 13

recurring conflict drove the selection pressures that shaped evolutionary adaptations, manifesting in a wide range of antisocial behaviours including violent and non-violent offenses

Question 14

what is psychopathy?

Answer 14

a constellation of affective, interpersonal, and behavioural characteristics, such as superficial charm, grandiosity, manipulation and lying, absence of remorse, inability to feel empathy, impulsivity, risk-taking behaviour, irresponsibility, and living a parasitic lifestyle

Question 15

what do most homicides occur as a result of?

Answer 15

altercations arising from arguments, insults, or rivalries between male acquaintances

Question 16

what do evolutionary theorists posit about risky behaviour?

Answer 16

risky behaviours were naturally selected for in the environment of evolutionary adaptations because they enhanced survival and reproductive success under certain environmental pressures

Question 17

what do biological theories of crime focus on?

Answer 17

the impact of physiological, biochemical, neurological, and/or genetic factors

Question 18

what does behaviourism focus on?

Answer 18

the study of observable processes

Question 19

what do behavioural theories of crime generally propose?

Answer 19

that criminal behaviour is learned in the same way that non-criminal behaviour is learned

Question 20

what do psychodynamic theories of crime focus on?

Answer 20

the internal (often unconscious) psychological forces that influence human behaviour. focus on factors that influence personality development, how personality development influences our ability resolve intra-psychic conflicts, and how these conflicts impact our behaviour

Question 21

what do learning theories focus on?

Answer 21

how information is encoded, processed, and retained in the process of learning to become a criminal

Question 22

what do social learning theories focus on?

Answer 22

focus on one particular form of learning; learning takes place by observing others being reinforced or punished for their prosocial and antisocial behaviour

Question 23

how are cross-sectional research designs used?

Answer 23

researchers examine different groups of individuals to determine if certain risk factors are associated with one group more than another

Question 24

how is longitudinal research conducted?

Answer 24

researchers follow groups of individuals to examine how their behaviour develops or changed over time

Question 25

what is the id?

Answer 25

part of an individual’s personality that is present at birth and represents unconscious, primitive, and instinctual desires

Question 26

what is the id governed by?

Answer 26

the pleasure principle: it seeks immediate pleasure with little consideration of the undesirable consequences that may result if the impulse is acted on

Question 27

what does the ego attempt to do?

Answer 27

mediate between one’s primal needs and society’s demands

Question 28

what is the ego guided by?

Answer 28

the reality principle: its development coincides with the emergence of reality-oriented thinking and it allows the id to function in socially acceptable ways by suppressing the id’s impulses until appropriate situations arise

Question 29

what does the superego represent?

Answer 29

the internalization of group standards, typically conveyed to the child through parental care and disciplines, and acts as a moral regulator

Question 30

what are the two sub-systems of the superego?

Answer 30

conscience: allows an individual to distinguish between right and wrong & forces the ego to inhibit id pursuits that are out of line with one’s morals
ego-ideal: represents the socially accepted standards to which we all aspire

Question 31

what does the existence of a harsh superego lead to?

Answer 31

pathological levels of unconscious guilt, where criminal behaviour is meant to subconsciously invite punishment in an attempt to resolve the guilt

Question 32

what does a weak superego fail to do?

Answer 32

fails to sufficiently regulate the instinctual needs of the id, leading individuals to be egocentric, impulsive, guiltless, and unempathetic

Question 33

when does a deviant superego develop?

Answer 33

when an individual has developed superego standards but the standards reflect that of a deviant role model

Question 34

what does Hirschi’s social control theory state?

Answer 34

the reason why people don’t violate the law is because of social controls

Question 35

what are the four interrelated social bonds presented by Hirschi? what do they promote?

Answer 35

1. attachment
2. commitment
3. involvement
4. belief
   promote socialization and conformity

Question 36

what does the general theory of crime proposed by Gottfredson and Hirschi argue?

Answer 36

that self-control, internalized early in life, is the primary determinant of crime, but opportunities to commit crime are also very important

Question 37

what do biosocial theories of crime argue?

Answer 37

crime can largely be explained by individual differences in the functioning of the nervous system. which impacts the degree to which people learn from environmental stimuli

Question 38

what does Jeffery’s differential reinforcement theory state?

Answer 38

a criminal act occurs in an environment in which in the past the actor has been reinforced for behaving in this manner, and the aversive consequences attached to the behaviour have been of such a nature that they do not control or prevent the response

Question 39

what did Sutherland propose in his differential association theory?

Answer 39

the nature of one’s conduct, including the likelihood of committing crime, is influenced by the norms present in the particular group to which one belongs; norms that can include attitudes that are favourable towards following the law or its violation

Question 40

what does the differential-association-reinforcement theory state?

Answer 40

criminal behaviour is learned through a process of operant conditioning

Question 41

what does the PIC-R theory incorporate?

Answer 41

ideas on the role of socialization in the development of antisocial attitudes, self-control in resisting temptations in the immediate situation, classical and operant conditioning in shaping criminal and non-criminal behaviour, and observational learning as a way of picking up on the many rewards and costs that can be associated with crime