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BIO 315 > Module 2 - Bacterial Morphology and Taxonomy > Flashcards

Module 2 - Bacterial Morphology and Taxonomy Flashcards

1
Q

How big are most eukaryotic cells?

A

Bigger than 5 um

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2
Q

How big are most bacterial cells?

A

0.5 - 5 um in length

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3
Q

How big are most viruses?

A

Less than 0.5 um

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4
Q

Rank the following in size order: viruses, eukaryotic cells, bactera

A

Viruses < bacteria < eukaryotic cells

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5
Q

What size can the naked eye see up to?

A

Up to 100 um

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6
Q

What is used to visualize bacterial cells?

A

The light microscope

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7
Q

What is the smallest bacterium discovered?

A

Mycoplasma gallicepticum

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8
Q

What is special about Mycoplasma gallicepticum?

A

It is the smallest bacterium discovered

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9
Q

What is the largest bacterium discovered?

A

Thiomargarita namibiensis

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10
Q

What is special about Thiomargarita namibiensis?

A

It is the largest bacterium discovered

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11
Q

True or false: Mycoplasma gallicepticum have a cell wall

A

False: they do not have a cell wall

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12
Q

How come most antibiotics don’t work on Mycoplasma gallicepticum?

A

Most antibiotics target cell wall synthesis, but M. gallicepticum does not have a cell wall

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13
Q

True or false: Mycoplasma gallicepticum is parasidic

A

True: it can cause disease

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14
Q

Where can Mycoplasma gallicepticum be found when infecting a host?

A

The genital, respiratory, or bladder track

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15
Q

How large is Thiomargarita namibiensis?

A

100-300 um, with some as large as 750 um

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16
Q

What was Thiomargarita namibiensis named after?

A

The continental shelf of Namibia (where they were discovered in ocean sediments)

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17
Q

What does coccus mean?

A

Spherical

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18
Q

What is a spherical bacteria called?

A

Coccus

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19
Q

What dos bacillus mean?

A

Rod-shaped

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20
Q

What is a rod-shaped bacteria called?

A

Bacillus

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21
Q

What does vibrio mean?

A

Curved rods

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22
Q

What is a curved bacteria called?

A

Vibrio

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23
Q

What does spirilla mean?

A

Spiral

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24
Q

What is a sprial bacteria called?

A

Spirilla

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25
Q

What does pleiomorphic mean?

A

Varied shapes

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26
Q

What is a varied-shaped bacteria called?

A

Pleiomorphic

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27
Q

What can you say about the size of pleiomorphic bacteria?

A

Tend to be smaller than other bacteria

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28
Q

True or false: bacteria can organize into “multicellular” organisms

A

True: this organization can be seen in some bacteria

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29
Q

What are hyphae?

A

Branching filaments of cells

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30
Q

What are mycelia?

A

Tufts of hyphae

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31
Q

What are trichomes?

A

Smooth, unbranched chains of cells

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32
Q

What is an example of a bacteria that organizes into mycelia?

A

Cyanobacteria

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33
Q

What is special about Cyanobacteria?

A

They form mycelia filaments

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34
Q

What is an example of a bacteria that organizes into trichomes?

A

Myxobacteria

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35
Q

What is special about Myxobacteria?

A

They form trichomes

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36
Q

How do cyanobacteria create mycelia filaments?

A

They adhere through a common cell wall

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37
Q

What do Myxobacteria do (where they live)?

A

Feed on inorganic substances in the soil

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38
Q

What can be said about the genome of Myxobacteria?

A

It is relatively large

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39
Q

What shape is E. coli?

A

Bacillus

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40
Q

What shape is Treponema pallidum?

A

Spirilla

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41
Q

True or false: bacteria have ribosomes

A

True

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42
Q

True or false: all bacteria have a cell wall

A

False: most, but not all, bacteria have a cell wall

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43
Q

Where is cytoplasm found?

A

Between the nuclear region and the plasma membrane of the cell

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44
Q

What is the appearance of cytoplasm?

A

Gel like

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45
Q

What is the composition of cytoplasm?

A

80% water, 20% proteins/lipids/carbs/inorganic ions

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46
Q

What do protein filaments do?

A

Lead to rod or spherical shaped bacteria

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47
Q

What do ribosomes do?

A

Produce proteins

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48
Q

What are ribosomes composed of?

A

rRNA and proteins

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49
Q

What is a plasmid?

A

DNA separate from the chromosomal genes, and can replicate independently

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50
Q

What is the appearance of a plasmid?

A

Small, circular double stranded DNA

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51
Q

What occupies a big portion of the bacterial cytoplasm?

A

The nucleoid region

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52
Q

What is the nucleoid region?

A

The area with chromosomal DNA and replication machinery

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53
Q

What is the structure of a typical bacterial chromosome?

A

A singular, circular DNA strand

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54
Q

How can chromosomes vary from the typical structure?

A

Some bacteria have linear chromosomes, and some have more than one chromosome

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55
Q

What is another name for inclusion bodies?

A

Elementary bodies

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56
Q

What are inclusion bodies?

A

Cytoplasmic aggregates of stable substances (usually proteins)

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57
Q

What happens at inclusion bodies?

A

They are a site for viral replication, and contains capsid proteins

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58
Q

What are some examples of inclusion bodies?

A

Polyhydroxybutyrate granules, and sulfur globules

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59
Q

What happens at polyhydroxybutyrate granules?

A

Carbon storage

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60
Q

Which part of the bacteria acts in carbon storage?

A

Polyhydroxybutyrate granules

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61
Q

What happens at sulfur globules?

A

Sulfur storage

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62
Q

Which part of the bacteria acts in sulfur storage?

A

Sulfur globules

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63
Q

What is another name for gas vesicles?

A

Gas vacuoles

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64
Q

What are gas vesicles composed of?

A

Proteins

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65
Q

What is the structure of a gas vesicle?

A

A hollow, cylindrical tube closed by conical end caps

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66
Q

What is the purpose of gas vesicles?

A

Regulate position in water in response to light or nutrients

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67
Q

Where are gas vesicles usually found?

A

In planktonic organisms

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68
Q

How come gas vesicles are usually found in planktonic organisms?

A

Buoyancy control is crucial for these organisms

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69
Q

What are carboxysomes?

A

Polyhedral protein shells with RuBisCo

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70
Q

What does RuBisCo stand for?

A

Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase

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71
Q

What do carboxysomes do?

A

Function in carbon fixation and the calvin cycle

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72
Q

What are magnetotactic bacteria?

A

Gram-negative bacteria that build magnetosomes

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73
Q

What is the structure of a magnetosome?

A

A lipid membrane with magnetite crystals

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74
Q

What is the purpose of magnetosomes?

A

Direction finding

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75
Q

Where does the magnetosome lead to?

A

Microaerophilic (low O2) environments for growth

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76
Q

What is the cytoskeleton composed of?

A

Proteins

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77
Q

What does the cytoskeleton do?

A

Organize components of the cell

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78
Q

What are some examples of cytoskeletal proteins?

A

MreB, FtsZ, ParR, and ParM

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79
Q

What is MreB a homolog of?

A

Actin

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80
Q

What is the structure of MreB, and where is it found?

A

Helical bands next to the plasma membrane

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81
Q

What type of bacteria universally contain MreB?

A

Nonspherical bacteria

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82
Q

Which bacteria rarely contain MreB?

A

Cocci

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83
Q

What does FtsZ stand for?

A

Filamenting temperature-sensitive mutant Z

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84
Q

What does FtsZ do?

A

Aids in cell division of the bactera

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85
Q

What does MreB do?

A

Helps form the shape of nonspherical bacteria

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86
Q

What is the structure of FtsZ, and where is it found?

A

A ring near the septum (where the bacterium splits)

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87
Q

What is FtsZ a homolog of?

A

Tubulin

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88
Q

Which protein is a homolog of actin?

A

MreB

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89
Q

Which protein is a homolog of tubulin?

A

FtsZ

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90
Q

What do ParR and ParM aid in?

A

The segregation of plasmids

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91
Q

What is needed for plasmids to move to daughter cells after division?

A

A ParC DNA site, and the proteins ParR and ParM

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92
Q

What is the ParMRC system?

A

The combination of the ParC DNA site, and the proteins ParR and ParM

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93
Q

What does ParM do?

A

Directs plasmid movement

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94
Q

Which other protein is like ParM?

A

Actin

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95
Q

What does ParR do?

A

DNA binding adaptor protein (connects ParC to ParM)

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96
Q

How does ParM interact with ParR and ParC?

A

It finds the plasmid filaments and the ParR/ParC components, and pushes the plasmids to opposite poles

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97
Q

What binds to ParC?

A

ParR

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98
Q

What does ParR bind to?

A

ParC

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99
Q

What is ParC?

A

A DNA binding site for ParR

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100
Q

What do cytoplasmic protein filaments do?

A

Contribute to the structural integrity of the cell

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101
Q

True or false: all cells have a plasma mebrane

A

True: it is required to separate external from internal

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102
Q

What is the composition of the plasma membrane?

A

A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins

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103
Q

What are the two types of proteins associated with the plasma membrane?

A

Peripheral proteins and integral proteins

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104
Q

What do peripheral proteins do, and where are they found?

A

They do not enter the membrane, and are found attached to the phosphate heads or integral proteins

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105
Q

What do integral proteins do, and where are they found?

A

They function as transporters, channels, linkers, receptors, energy accumulators, and cell adhesion proteins. They are found embedded within the membrane

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106
Q

What component do some (but not all) bacterial plasma membranes contain?

A

Hopanoids

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107
Q

What is the structure of hopanoids?

A

Pentacyclic compounds that mimic hopane

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108
Q

What are hopanoids analogous to?

A

Cholesterol

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109
Q

What are the functions of hopanoids?

A

Influence mobility and rigidity of the cell membrane

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110
Q

What is the purpose of hopanoids?

A

Adjust the cell membrane to adapt to extreme environments

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111
Q

How does CO2 and O2 get through the plasma membrane?

A

Through simple diffusion

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112
Q

How does H2O get through the plasma membrane?

A

Through aquaporins

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113
Q

What is osmosis?

A

The diffusion of water from lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration

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114
Q

What are the consequences of osmosis?

A

The cell could shrink or swell

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115
Q

How does a bacterium control the consequences of osmosis?

A

Through the cell wall

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116
Q

What is facilitated diffusion?

A

Diffusion of a nutrient down its concentration gradient through a specific channel protein

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117
Q

True or false: facilitated diffusion requires energy

A

False: it does not require energy, since it is moving down the concentration gradient

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118
Q

What is active transport?

A

Movement of a nutrient up its concentration gradient

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119
Q

True or false: active transport requires energy

A

True: it requires energy, since it is moving up its concentration gradient

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120
Q

What types of nutrients are usually transported through active transport?

A

Amino acids, glucose, ions, etc.

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121
Q

What are the two types of active transport?

A

Primary active transport and secondary active transport

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122
Q

What is primary active transport?

A

Using ATP as the source of energy in active transport

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123
Q

What is secondary active transport?

A

Using an electrochemical gradient as the source of energy in active transport

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124
Q

What are the 2 primary active transporters mentioned in this lecture?

A

P-type ATPases, and ABC transporters

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125
Q

What transporters usually transports ions?

A

P-type ATPases

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126
Q

What do P-type ATPases usually transport?

A

Ions (sodium, potassium, calcium, proton, etc.)

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127
Q

What is the purpose of a P-type ATPase?

A

Maintain membrane potential

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128
Q

What is the net reaction of the sodium potassium pump?

A

One ATP is used to move 3 Na out, and 2 K in

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129
Q

What does ABC transporter stand for?

A

ATP binding cassette transporter

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130
Q

What are some examples of ABC transporters?

A

MDR, CFTR, etc.

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131
Q

What is the structure of an ABC transporter?

A

4 subunits (2 hydrophobic, 2 hydrophilic)

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132
Q

What do the hydrophobic subunits of the ABC transporter do?

A

Form the transmembrane channel

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133
Q

What do the hydrophilic subunits of the ABC transporter do?

A

ATP binding domain on cytosolic portion of the cell

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134
Q

What does the associated subunit of the ABC transporter do?

A

Binds to the solute with high affinity

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135
Q

How do ABC transporters work?

A

The binding of the associated subunit causes ATP subunits to hydrolyze ATP, leading to conformation change and movement across the membrane

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136
Q

What is another name for secondary active transport?

A

Coupled transport, or co-transport

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137
Q

How does secondary active transport work?

A

One chemical moves down its electrochemical gradient, while another chemical moves up its electrochemical gradient

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138
Q

What is a common ion used in secondary active transport?

A

Sodium

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139
Q

What are the two types of cotransporters?

A

Symporters and antiporters

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140
Q

What is a symporter?

A

The two substances move in the same direction

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141
Q

What is an antiporter?

A

The two substances move in the opposite direction

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142
Q

What is an example of an antiporter?

A

The sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX)

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143
Q

What is an example of a symporter?

A

The sodium-glucose transporter

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144
Q

What does NCX stand for?

A

Sodium-calcium exchanger

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145
Q

What is the net reaction of NCX?

A

3 sodium into the cell, 1 calcium out of the cell

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146
Q

How does the plasma membrane capture energy?

A

It contains components of the ETC to create a proton gradient across the membrane

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147
Q

What does PMF stand for?

A

Proton motive force

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148
Q

What is PMF used for?

A

Respiration, photosynthesis, and motion (flagella)

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149
Q

What do the sensory systems of the plasma membrane do?

A

Change gene expression to respond to the environment

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150
Q

What proteins are involved in the secretion pathway?

A

The Sec proteins

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151
Q

What does the SecB protein do?

A

Associates to newly synthesized polypeptides that need to be secreted from the cell

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152
Q

How does the SecB protein alter the polypeptide?

A

It prevents it from folding, and directs it to SecA

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153
Q

What does SecA do?

A

It associates with SecB and SecYEG to hydrolyze ATP and push the polypeptide out of the cell

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154
Q

What does SecYEG do?

A

Form a channel protein that can allow for the polypeptide do be secreted

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155
Q

Which Sec protein associates with the newly synthesized polypeptides?

A

SecB

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156
Q

Which Sec protein hydrolyzes ATP and pushes the polypeptide out of the cell?

A

SecA

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157
Q

Which Sec protein forms the channel?

A

SecYEG

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158
Q

What does the signal peptidase do?

A

Removes the signal peptide from the polypeptide

159
Q

Where is the signal peptidase found?

A

In the periplasmic space

160
Q

What happens after the signal peptide is cleaved from the polypeptide?

A

It can fold into its conformational (protein) shape

161
Q

What percentage of bacteria have a cell wall?

162
Q

What is the purpose of the cell wall?

A

Provide structure, strength, and protection from mechanical/osmotic forces

163
Q

What is the cell wall of plants made out of?

164
Q

What is the cell wall of fungi made out of?

165
Q

What is the cell wall of bacteria made out of?

A

Peptidoglycans

166
Q

What is the structure of the cell wall?

A

Peptidoglycan layers crosslinked together (similar to a chain-link fence)

167
Q

What is another name for the peptidoglycan?

168
Q

True or false: peptidoglycans play a role in binary fission

A

True: they are important in reproduction

169
Q

What is the structure of a peptidoglycan?

A

Disaccharide composed of NAG and NAM, and a small peptide chain

170
Q

What type of molecules are NAG and NAM?

A

Amino sugars

171
Q

What does NAG stand for?

A

N-acetylglucosamine

172
Q

What does NAM stand for?

A

N-acetylmuramic acid

173
Q

What holds together NAG and NAM?

A

Beta 1-4 glycosidic bond (alternate)

174
Q

Where is the peptide chain found in the peptidoglycan layers?

A

Only on the NAM subunits

175
Q

True or false: only one end of the peptide chain is attached to NAM

A

False: both ends of the peptide chain are attached only to NAM

176
Q

True or false: the peptide chains on NAM are conserved within bacteria

A

False: they vary from species to species

177
Q

What forms the 3D mesh-like layer of the peptidoglycan layer?

A

Crosslinking between the peptide chains

178
Q

What is used to crosslink the peptide chains?

A

D amino acids

179
Q

True or false: the crosslinking peptides between NAM are conserved within bacteria

A

False: they vary from species to species

180
Q

Where is the cell wall formed?

A

Outside of the plasma membrane

181
Q

What is the function of bactoprenol?

A

Move the peptidoglycans across the cell membrane

182
Q

What is the structure of bactoprenol?

A

An amphipathic lipid that spans the entire membrane

183
Q

What are the precursors of NAM and NAG?

A

Glutamine and fructose-6-phosphate

184
Q

What happens after NAM and NAG are formed in the cytoplasm?

A

NAG reacts with UTP to made UDP-NAG

185
Q

What does UTP stand for?

A

Uridine triphosphate

186
Q

What does UDP stand for?

A

Uridine diphosphate

187
Q

What happens after UDP-NAG is produced?

A

It is converted into UDP-NAM-NAG

188
Q

What happens after UDP-NAM-NAG is produced?

A

The small peptide chain is added

189
Q

What is stage 1 of cell wall formation?

A

Forming the subunit peptidoglycans

190
Q

What is stage 2 of cell wall formation?

A

Transporting the subunits across the cell membrane

191
Q

How does bactoprenol interact with the subunits?

A

It joins through a pyrophosphate bond, thus linking the peptidoglycan sugars with bactoprenol

192
Q

What happens once the NAG-NAM is linked to bactoprenol?

A

It flips to bring the subunits to the periplasm

193
Q

What type of molecule is bactoprenol-NAM-NAG?

194
Q

What happens once the bactoprenol-NAM-NAG is at the periplasm?

A

The NAM-NAG is added to the growing peptidoglycan chain

195
Q

What happens in the transglycosylation reaction?

A

It displaces the bactoprenol lipid from the NAM-NAG sugars, by linking the hydroxyl group of NAG to the NAM in the growing chain

196
Q

What is the chemistry of the transglycosylation reaction?

A

The hydroxyl group of NAG links to NAM in the growing chain, displacing it from bactoprenol

197
Q

What enzyme catalyzes the transglycosylation reaction?

A

Transglycosylase

198
Q

What enzymes can degrade the cell wall?

A

Lysozyme and lysostaphin

199
Q

What does lysozyme do?

A

It breaks beta-1,4-glycosidic bonds between peptidoglycans

200
Q

True or false: lysozymes can work on all bacteria

A

True: it can work on many bacteria

201
Q

How come lysozymes can work on many bacterial cell walls?

A

Beta-1,4-glycosidic bonds are found in many bacteria

202
Q

What does lysostaphin do?

A

Breaks the crosslinking bridges composed of glycine between peptides

203
Q

True or false: lysostaphin can work on all bacteria

A

False: it can only work on certain Staphylococcus species

204
Q

How come lysostaphin can only work on certain Staphylococcus species?

A

The peptide crosslinking various between bacterial species

205
Q

What are examples of Staphylococcus species?

A

MSSA and MRSA

206
Q

What happens if bacteria do not have an intact cell wall?

A

Bacteria lose their shape, especially bacillus

207
Q

What is a protoplast?

A

The spherical shape a Gram-positive bacillus bacteria makes when it has no cell wall

208
Q

What is a spheroplast?

A

The spherical shape a Gram-negative bacillus bacteria makes when it has no cell wall

209
Q

What is the danger of a protoplast?

A

They can be easily lysed in hypotonic conditions

210
Q

What are beta-lactam antibiotics?

A

Antibiotics that contain a beta-lactam ring

211
Q

What do beta-lactam antibiotics do?

A

They prevent the crosslinking of peptidoglycan layers, thus weakening the cell wall

212
Q

What are some examples of beta-lactam antibiotics?

A

Penicillin, cephalosporin, carbapenem, amoxicillin, and monobactam

213
Q

What does beta-lactamase do?

A

Breaks the beta-lactam ring in beta-lactam antibiotics

214
Q

What is another name for beta-lactamase?

A

Penicillinase

215
Q

What is the significance of beta-lactamase?

A

The antibiotic cannot inhibit the crosslinking, and thus the cell wall stays intact, and the bacterium survives

216
Q

How can scientists overcome beta-lactamase?

A

Use a combination of a beta-lactam antibiotic, and a molecule that can inhibit beta-lactamase

217
Q

What is an example of a combination drug designed to overcome beta-lactamase?

218
Q

What is an example of a competitive inhibitor of beta-lactamase?

A

Clavulanic acid

219
Q

How can bacteria be distinguished based on the cell wall?

A

Gram-positive and Gram-negative

220
Q

What is the origin of the name Gram-positive and Gram-negative?

A

The reaction to the procedure developed by Christian Gram

221
Q

What is the Gram-stain procedure?

A
  1. Cells are stained with crystal violet and iodine
  2. Cells are washed with an organic solvent
  3. Cells are stained with safranin
222
Q

What is the purpose of the crystal violet dye in the Gram-staining technique?

A

It stains peptidoglycan purple

223
Q

What is the purpose of the organic solvent in the Gram-staining technique?

A

It washes the crystal violet from certain bacteria

224
Q

What is the purpose of the safranin in the Gram-staining technique?

A

It stains certain bacteria pink if they do not have crystal violet

225
Q

What are the outcomes of the Gram-staining technique?

A

The bacteria will either look purple or pink

226
Q

What does purple bacteria signify in the Gram-staining procedure?

A

Gram-positive bacteria

227
Q

What does pink bacteria signify in the Gram-staining procedure?

A

Gram-negative bacteria

228
Q

What leads to the different outcomes of the Gram-staining procedure?

A

Differences in the bacterial cell wall

229
Q

What is the structure of a Gram-positive cell wall?

A

A thick layer of peptidoglycan (20-80 nm)

230
Q

How thick is the peptidoglycan layer of Gram-positive bacteria?

231
Q

How much of the dry weight of Gram-positive bacteria is peptidoglycan?

232
Q

How large is the periplasmic space of Gram-positive bacteria?

A

Very narrow

233
Q

What is the periplasmic space?

A

The space between the cell wall and the cell membrane in bacteria

234
Q

Besides peptidoglycans, what are found in the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria?

A

Teichoic acids

235
Q

Where are teichoic acids found?

A

In Gram-positive bacteria

236
Q

What is the structure of teichoic acids?

A

Negatively charged glycopolymers

237
Q

Where are lipoteichoic acids found in the cell wall?

A

Linked to the membrane through glycolipids

238
Q

Where are wall teichoic acids found in the cell wall?

A

Covalently linked to peptidoglycan

239
Q

What is the function of teichoic acids?

A

Provide rigidity to the cell wall by attracting cations (sodium, magnesium, etc.)

240
Q

What is the structure of a Gram-negative cell wall?

A

A thin layer of peptidoglycan, surrounded by another lipid membrane

241
Q

What composes the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria?

A

Lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins

242
Q

How thick is the peptidoglycan layer of Gram-negative bacteria?

243
Q

How large is the periplasmic space in Gram-negative bacteria?

A

Larger than Gram-positive, but can still vary

244
Q

How much of the dry weight of a Gram-negative bacteria is peptidoglycan?

245
Q

What is the structure of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria?

A

A layer of phospholipids, and a layer of lipopolysaccharides

246
Q

What does LPS stand for?

A

Lipopolysaccharides

247
Q

What are the components of LPS?

A

Lipid A, core polysaccharide, and O side chain

248
Q

What does O side chain stand for?

A

Outer side chain

249
Q

What is the innermost region of LPS?

250
Q

What is another name for Lipid A?

A

Endotoxin molecule

251
Q

Wat does Lipid A do?

A

Anchors LPS to the outer membrane

252
Q

How does Lipid A interact with humans?

A

It produces a strong inflammatory response

253
Q

How can the O side chain interact with humans?

A

It can be changed by the microbe to evade host immunities

254
Q

How do nutrients get through Gram-positive cell walls?

A

There are large pores in the peptidoglycan matrix

255
Q

How do nutrients get through Gram-negative cell walls?

A

Through the porin and TonB proteins

256
Q

What do the porin and TonB proteins do?

A

Allow nutrients to get through the Gram-negative cell wall

257
Q

What does S-layer stand for?

A

Surface layer

258
Q

Where is the S-layer (generally)?

A

Part of the cell envelope

259
Q

How many organisms have an S-layer?

A

Many bacteria, and almost all archaea

260
Q

What is the structure of the S-layer?

A

A monolayer of identical proteins or glycoproteins

261
Q

What is the function of the S-layer?

A

Diverse: it varies from species to species (usually protection)

262
Q

How is the S-layer attached in Gram-positive bacteria?

A

Attaches to peptidoglycan matrix through secondary cell wall polymers

263
Q

How is the S-layer attached in Gram-negative bacteria?

A

It is closely associated with LPS of the outer membrane

264
Q

What is one example function of the S-layer?

A

It may protect bacteria from bacteriophages or the immune system

265
Q

What are bacteriophages?

A

Viruses that infect bacteria

266
Q

What is a flagellum?

A

A lash or hair like appendage that protrudes from the cell body

267
Q

How large is a flagellum?

A

15-20 nm in diameter

268
Q

What is the primary function of the flagellum?

A

Motility or locomotion

269
Q

What are the secondary functions of flagella?

A

Sensory organelle (sensitive to chemicals and temperature)

270
Q

What defines flagella?

A

Function, not structure

271
Q

What are polar flagella?

A

Flagella only at the ends of bacteria

272
Q

What are monotrichous bacteria?

A

Bacteria with one flagellum at one end

273
Q

If a bacterium has one flagellum at one end, what is it called?

A

Monotrichous

274
Q

What are amphitrichous bacteria?

A

Bacteria with one flagellum at either end

275
Q

If a bacterium has one flagellum at either end, what is it called?

A

Amphitrichous

276
Q

What are lophotrichous bacteria?

A

Bacteria with multiple flagella at one end

277
Q

If a bacterium has multiple flagella at one end, what is it called?

A

Lophotrichous

278
Q

What are peritrichous bacteria?

A

Bacteria with multiple flagella all around the cell

279
Q

If a bacterium has multiple flagella all around the cell, what is it called?

A

Peritrichous

280
Q

What are axial filaments?

A

Flagella anchored at the periplasmic space (as opposed to the cell surface)

281
Q

What species have axial filaments?

A

Some spirochetes

282
Q

What is special about spirochetes?

A

They have axial filaments

283
Q

What happens when axial filaments spin?

A

The whole cell spins like a corkscrew

284
Q

Where does the energy to spin flagella come from?

285
Q

In bacteria, where is the proton pump machinery located?

A

On the plasma membrane

286
Q

When happens when the flagella spin in one direction?

A

The bacterium moves in a straight line, and the flagella bunch together

287
Q

What can you say about a bacterium moving in a straight line?

A

The flagella are spinning in one direction, bunched together

288
Q

When happens when the flagella change their direction?

A

The bacterium tumbles, and the flagella come apart

289
Q

What can you say about a bacterium that is tumbling?

A

The flagella are changing direction, spread apart

290
Q

What are the three basic components of flagella?

A

A flagellar filament, hook, and basal body

291
Q

What is the composition of the flagellar filament?

A

Flagellin protein

292
Q

What does flagellin do?

A

Makes up the flagellar filament

293
Q

How long is a normal flagellar filament?

294
Q

Which is usually longer: the flagellar filament, or the cell?

A

The flagellar filament

295
Q

What does the basal body do?

A

Anchors the flagellar filament to the cell envelope, and provides torque to the filament by interfacing with the motor

296
Q

What is the structure of the basal body?

A

A disk-like structure

297
Q

Where is the flagellar motor?

A

In the plasma membrane

298
Q

What does the flagellar motor do?

A

Converts energy from PMF to drive rotation of the filament

299
Q

What does the hook do?

A

Connects the filament to the basal body

300
Q

What shape is the hook?

301
Q

What interfaces with the flagellar motor?

A

The basal body

302
Q

What is a pilus?

A

A hair-like appendage on the surface of many bacteria

303
Q

What is the difference between pili and fimbriae?

A

Fimbriae are used for adhesion, while pili are used for conjugation

304
Q

What is a sex pilus?

A

A pilus used for conjugation of plasmids

305
Q

What is the composition of pili?

A

Pillin proteins

306
Q

What does pillin do?

A

Subunit of pili

307
Q

What is conjugation?

A

One bacterium donating one strand of its plasmid to another bacterium

308
Q

What is another name for fimbriae?

A

Attachment pili

309
Q

How do fimbriae compare to flagella?

A

Fimbriae are shorter and thinner than flagella

310
Q

How come fimbriae are important for pathogenic bacteria?

A

Binding to the host target is an important first step in pathogenesis

311
Q

What is another name for capsule?

312
Q

What are capsules composed of?

A

Polysaccharides

313
Q

What type of bacteria have capsules?

A

Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria can have capsules

314
Q

In what diseases is the capsule considered a major virulence factor?

A

Pneumonia and meningitis

315
Q

What is the purpose of capsules?

A

Prevent bacteria from drying out, escape phagocytic action of host cells, and help form biofilms

316
Q

What is the importance of biofilms?

A

Provide protection and enhanced survivability in harsh environments

317
Q

True or false: all bacteria can be cultured

A

False: not all bacteria can be cultured

318
Q

What is the order of taxonomy?

A

Domain –> kingdom –> phylum –> class –> order –> family –> genus –> species

319
Q

What is a pneumonic for taxonomy?

A

King Philip Came Over For Good Spaghetti

320
Q

What level is lower than species in taxonomy?

321
Q

How is a bacteria named?

A

Through its genus and species

322
Q

What is a genus?

A

A group of closely related species

323
Q

What is a species?

A

A group of strains sharing common features, while differing considerable from other strains

324
Q

What determines the shape of a bacterial cell?

A

The organization of the cell wall

325
Q

In trichomes and mycelia, what are found in the partitions between cells?

A

Channels for intracellular passage of materials

326
Q

What is needed to visualize viruses?

A

Electron microscopes

327
Q

How do cations allow for DNA packing?

A

They positive charges can associated with negative DNA to pack it closer

328
Q

What does topoisomerase do?

A

It is an enzyme that encourages the chromosome to coil upon itself

329
Q

What is the purpose of topoisomerases?

A

Create supercoiling to pack the DNA

330
Q

What does PHB stand for?

A

Polyhydroxybutyrate

331
Q

What do PHBs do?

A

Act as a carbon storage

332
Q

How can PHBs be used industrially?

A

They can be used as substitutes for plastics

333
Q

What is the anammoxosome?

A

A compartment where ammonium is oxidized for energy

334
Q

What does the Z-ring do?

A

It is formed by FtsZ proteins, and it aids in bacterial cell division. It also directs synthesis of the bacterial cell wall

335
Q

How does the Z-ring constrict?

A

Through controlled release of FtsZ monomers through GTP hydrolysis

336
Q

How does MreB work?

A

It guides the synthesis and formation of the cell wall into an elongated cylinder

337
Q

What is the cell envelope?

A

The collection of the plasma membrane, cell wall, and outer membrane

338
Q

What do cytochromes do?

A

Form the ETC

339
Q

What is the sequence of the signal peptide?

A

A short sequence of large hydrophobic amino acids at the amino-terminal end of a polypeptide

340
Q

How do mycoplasmas survive without a cell wall?

A

They live inside eukaryotic hosts

341
Q

True or false: the cell wall is a permeability barrier

A

False: there is no selection to get through the cell wall

342
Q

What is usually the first amino acid in the peptide on NAM?

A

L-Alanine (L-Ala)

343
Q

What is usually the fourth and fifth amino acids in the peptide on NAM?

A

D-Alanine (D-Ala)

344
Q

What happens to the fifth amino acid in the peptide on NAM?

A

It is removed when crosslinking occurs

345
Q

In Gram-positive bacteria, what is usually the second amino acid in the peptide on NAM?

A

D-isoglutamine (D-GluNH2)

346
Q

In Gram-negative bacteria, what is usually the second amino acid in the peptide on NAM?

A

D-isoglutamate (D-Glu)

347
Q

What is usually the third amino acid in the peptide on NAM?

A

It varies greatly between species

348
Q

What does transpeptidase do?

A

Crosslinks a pentapeptide precursor to the growing cell wall

349
Q

What does the beta-lactam ring mimic?

350
Q

True or false: beta-lactam antibiotics can target all cell walls

A

False: only cell walls that are currently growing can be affected by beta-lactam antibiotics

351
Q

What is the composition of teichoic acids?

A

Ribitol phosphate or glycerol phosphate

352
Q

What is the purpose of endospore formation?

A

It acts as a survival mechanism under stressful conditions

353
Q

What are the characteristics of endospores?

A

Inert, and increased resistance to desiccation, UV light exposure, and high temperature

354
Q

What is the composition of an endospore?

A

Additional layers of proteins outside of the peptidoglycan

355
Q

What type of bacteria can create endospores?

A

Gram-positive bacteria

356
Q

What is the purpose of oligosaccharides in the periplasm?

A

Help bacteria adjust to changes in osmolarity

357
Q

What attaches the outer membrane to the cell wall?

A

Murein lipoprotein and peptidoglycan-associated lipoprotein

358
Q

How does murein lipoprotein attach the outer membrane to the cell wall?

A

Links to the cell wall through carboxyl-terminal amino acid (lysine), and links to lipid chain through amino-terminal amino acid (cysteine)

359
Q

What is the structure of porin?

A

Trimeric pores

360
Q

What is the size limit of porins?

361
Q

How does TonB differ from porins?

A

TonB is better for scare nutrients

362
Q

What proteins are found in complex with TonB?

A

ExbB and ExbD

363
Q

Where does TonB get energy for active transport?

A

The proton motive force

364
Q

What are autotransporters?

A

Proteins that can catalyze their own transit across the plasma membrane

365
Q

What is the type III secretion pathway?

A

A “syringe” structure to cross the inner and outer membrane in one step

366
Q

What is the type III secretion pathway related to?

A

Bacterial flagella

367
Q

Which types of bacteria have the type III secretion pathway?

A

Gram-negative bacteria

368
Q

How does the alcohol solvent interact with Gram-positive bacteria?

A

It strengthens the peptidoglycan matrix

369
Q

How does the alcohol solvent interact with the Gram-negative bacteria?

A

It dissolves the outer membrane

370
Q

What is chemotaxis?

A

The process of using chemical signals from the environment to direct motility

371
Q

What controls if the flagella will all rotate in the same direction?

A

The cytoplasmic control system

372
Q

What are chemoreceptors?

A

Receptors that detect attractants and repellants

373
Q

What is special about Proteus mirabilis?

A

It can adapt to contact with surfaces by becoming hyper-flagellated

374
Q

What is gliding motility?

A

Bacteria without flagella sliding smoothly over surfaces

375
Q

What is twitching motility?

A

Relying on pili fibers to move along surfaces

376
Q

True or false: all bacteria with pili can perform twitching motility

A

False: it is only inherent in certain pili bacteria

377
Q

What is special about Shingella?

A

They move via the actin cytoskeleton within cells

378
Q

What is a stalk?

A

A tubular extension of the entire cell envelope

379
Q

What is the advantage of a stalk?

A

It increases the surface area to volume ratio, thus increasing nutrient uptake

380
Q

What is a slime layer?

A

A less defined outer layer

381
Q

What does glycocalyx refer to?

A

Both capsules and slime layers

382
Q

How can an S-layer be lost?

A

If a cell does not need it anymore (such as in lab culture)

383
Q

What is needed for each new taxon?

A

At least two different cultures of the bacteria in two different countries

384
Q

What type of bacteria are part of Proteobacteria?

A

A wide range of Gram-negative bacteria, including human pathogens, nitrogen fixing bacteria, and photosynthetic bacteria

385
Q

What is an example of a bacteria from Proteobacteria?

386
Q

Which phylum is mitochondria most closely related to?

A

Proteobacteria

387
Q

What type of bacteria are part of Firmicutes?

A

A wide range of Gram-positive bacteria that have low GC content

388
Q

What type of bacteria are part of Actinobacteria?

A

Gram-positive bacteria with high GC content

389
Q

What are geosmins?

A

Organic compounds that have an aroma

390
Q

What phylum produces geosmins?

A

Actinobacteria

391
Q

What type of bacteria are part of Bacteroidetes?

A

Gram-negative bacteria that usually aid in digestion

392
Q

What type of bacteria are part of Cyanobacteria?

A

Photosynthetic organisms

393
Q

What are some bacterial phyla?

A

Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Cyanobacteria

BIO 315 (12 decks)

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