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BIO 315 > Module 1 - The Microbial World > Flashcards

Module 1 - The Microbial World Flashcards

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1
Q

What is microbiology?

A

The study of microorganisms

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2
Q

What are some examples of microorganisms?

A

Bacteria, protozoa, and fungi

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3
Q

True or false: microbes can be seen with the naked eye

A

False: most cannot be seen with the naked eye

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4
Q

Why do we need to study microbiology?

A

Microbes have a complex and dynamic relationship with humans

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5
Q

How can bacteria be harmful to humans?

A

By causing infectious diseases

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6
Q

How can bacteria be helpful to humans?

A

By aiding in digestion and immune system development

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7
Q

True or false: microorganisms only affect animals

A

False: they can also impact plants

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8
Q

Where is microbiology used?

A

In biotechnology and the food industry

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9
Q

How is microbiology used in biotechnology?

A

By using microbes to create drugs

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10
Q

How is microbiology used in the food industry?

A

By creating food such as milk, butter, bread, and cheese

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11
Q

What is the definition of life?

A

A self-organizing, self replicating, non-equilibrium system

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12
Q

What is the purpose of life?

A

To preserve and reinforce its existence in the environment

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13
Q

What are some characteristics of life?

A

Metabolism, growth, reproduction, genetic variation/evolution, response/adaptation to the external environment, homeostasis

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14
Q

What macromolecules are needed for life?

A

Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids

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15
Q

What are the subunits of polypeptides?

A

Amino acids

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16
Q

What are the subunits of nucleic acids?

A

Deoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides

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17
Q

What are the subunits of lipids?

A

Diverse structures

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18
Q

What are the subunits of carbohydrates?

A

Sugars

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19
Q

What are the functions of proteins?

A

Catalyze biochemical reactions (enzymes) and act as structural components

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20
Q

What are the functions of nucleic acids?

A

Store hereditary information (DNA), and produce polypeptides (RNA)

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21
Q

What are the functions of lipids?

A

Make up cell membrane to separate interior and exterior

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22
Q

What are the functions of polysaccharides?

A

Energy storage (glycogen, starch) and structure (chitin, cellulose)

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23
Q

What are the most abundant molecules in cells?

A

Proteins and polypeptides

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24
Q

Which are more abundant in a cell: RNA or DNA?

A

RNA

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25
Q

What is the difference between a protein and a polypeptide?

A

The function

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26
Q

How is the shape of a polypeptide different than a protein?

A

Long polypeptide chains fold into proteins, which have a well defined structure

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27
Q

What is the function of the cell membrane?

A

Separate external and internal cell compartments

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28
Q

Before the 1970s, how were organisms classified?

A

As prokaryotes or eukaryotes

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29
Q

What are prokaryotes?

A

Organisms with no membrane-bound organelles

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30
Q

What are eukaryotes?

A

Organisms with membrane-bound organelles

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31
Q

Today, how are organisms classified?

A

Into 3 domains

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32
Q

What are the 3 domains of life?

A

Bacteria, archaea, and eukarya

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33
Q

What is the basis for the 3 domains of life?

A

Differences in the 16S rRNA gene

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34
Q

In a phylogenetic tree of life, what does the linear distance represent?

A

Proportional to the sequence similarity of the 16S rRNA gene in those two organisms (evolutionary distance)

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35
Q

How has the tree of life been updated recently (2016)?

A

By analyzing 16 ribosomal proteins other than the 16S rRNA gene

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36
Q

What is the significance of the 16S rRNA gene?

A

Determines the tree of life evolutionary distance through sequence analysis

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37
Q

What is the purpose of using 16 ribosomal proteins (instead of the 16S rRNA gene) for the tree of life?

A

Updated resolution

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38
Q

True or false: bacteria have a nuclear membrane

A

False

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39
Q

True or false: archaea have a nuclear membrane

A

False

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40
Q

True or false: eukarya have a nuclear membrane

A

True

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41
Q

True or false: bacteria commonly have membrane-bound organelles

A

False: it is rare, only found in a few species

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42
Q

True or false: archaea commonly have membrane-bound organelles

A

False: it is rare, only found in a few species

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43
Q

True or false: eukarya commonly have membrane-bound organelles

A

True: multiple distinct types are found in all species

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44
Q

Which domain(s) have a nuclear membrane?

A

Eukarya

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45
Q

Which domain(s) have membrane-bound organelles?

A

Eukarya

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46
Q

Describe the plasma membrane of bacteria (in terms of the other domains)

A

Similar to eukarya

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47
Q

Describe the plasma membrane of eukarya (in terms of the other domains)

A

Similar to bacteria

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48
Q

Describe the plasma membrane of archaea (in terms of the other domains)

A

Different from eukarya and bacteria

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49
Q

Which domains have similar plasma membranes?

A

Bacteria and eukarya

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50
Q

Describe the cell wall of bacteria (generally)

A

Found in nearly all species, made up of peptidoglycans

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51
Q

Describe the cell wall of archaea (generally)

A

Found in nearly all species, made up of various materials

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52
Q

Describe the cell wall of eukarya (generally)

A

Found in some species, made up of various materials

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53
Q

How many RNA polymerases do bacteria have?

A

One

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54
Q

How many RNA polymerases do eukarya have?

A

Three (RNA pol I, II, and III)

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55
Q

How many RNA polymerases do archaea have?

A

One (Eukaryal-like RNA pol II)

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56
Q

True or false: bacteria have histones

A

False: they have histone-like proteins

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57
Q

True or false: archaea have histones

A

True

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58
Q

True or false: eukarya have histones

A

True

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59
Q

Which domain(s) have histones?

A

Archaea and eukarya

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60
Q

What was the early environment on Earth like?

A

Little oxygen, and a soup of chemicals

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61
Q

What happened to the soup of chemicals in early Earth?

A

They became macromolecules and single cells

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62
Q

When did oxygen producing bacteria come into existance?

A

About 3 billion years ago

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63
Q

When was the oxygen atmosphere established on Earth?

A

About 2 billion years ago

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64
Q

How were eukaryotes formed on early Earth?

A

Through endosymbiosis

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65
Q

What is the endosymbiotic theory?

A

Primitive prokaryotic microbes ingested other microbes, starting a symbiotic relationship, forming the first basic eukaryotes

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66
Q

What does the endosymbiotic theory describe?

A

How eukaryotic organisms first appeared on early Earth from prokaryotic organisms

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67
Q

How did the two organisms interact under the endosymbiotic theory?

A

One lived inside the other, with them both acting as a single organism

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68
Q

What does symbiosis mean?

A

The interaction between two different organisms living in close physical association, usually to the advantage of both

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69
Q

Which organelles arose from an endosymbiotic process?

A

Chloroplasts and mitochondria

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70
Q

How did mitochondria benefit other cells?

A

By using oxygen to produce chemical energy (respiration)

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71
Q

How did chloroplasts benefit other cells?

A

By fixing carbon to create sugar molecules (photosynthesis)

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72
Q

How long have bacteria dominated the Earth?

A

About 3.5 billion years

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73
Q

What was the purpose of the Miller-Urey experiment?

A

To show that organic molecules could arise from early Earth conditions

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74
Q

When was the Miller-Urey experiment performed?

A

In the 1950s

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75
Q

What is the purpose of water in the Miller-Urey experiment?

A

It was critical to convert inorganic molecules into organic molecules

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76
Q

What was the purpose of the spark in the Miller-Urey experiment?

A

Simulate lightning that could be a source of energy for the biochemical reactions to occur

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77
Q

What was the conclusion of the Miller-Urey experiment?

A

Organic molecules can be formed with light and water

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78
Q

What are some fundamental questions (4) regarding the origin of life?

A
  1. How are macromolecules produced?
  2. What was the source of genetic information?
  3. What catalyzed biochemical reactions?
  4. What separated interior from exterior?
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79
Q

Where is iron found on Earth?

A

In the inner core

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80
Q

What was the significance of iron in the early Earth?

A

It could act as a surface for molecules to stick to and form macromolecules

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81
Q

What is needed for a cell to replicate?

A

Biochemical reactions, and a genetic component

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82
Q

What are ribozymes?

A

RNA that can catalyze biochemical reactions

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83
Q

How come RNA could support independent life forms?

A

They could act as a catalyst for biochemical reactions, and a genetic component (dual purpose for replication)

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84
Q

What was an early form of the plasma membrane?

A

Micelles

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85
Q

What are micelles?

A

A single layer of phospholipids that can separate interior from exterior

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86
Q

How come plasma membranes are composed of a bilayer, and not a monolayer?

A

The size of a micelle is more limited than a bilayer

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87
Q

What were the components of the earliest microbes?

A

Micelles and RNA

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88
Q

Why is DNA used to store hereditary information now instead of RNA?

A

DNA has a backup copy (double strand), and it is more stable than RNA

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89
Q

What are the advantages of microbes (4 reasons)?

A
  1. Fast and easy to grow
  2. Produce enzymes and other molecules for industrial/medical uses
  3. Simpler to study (less genes)
  4. Easier genetic manipulation (compared to eukaryotic cell)
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90
Q

How long does E. coli take to divide?

A

20 min

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91
Q

How long does yeast take to divide?

A

90 min

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92
Q

Before microbes were discovered, what was believed to be the source of diseases?

A

Angry gods or bad air

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93
Q

How did microbiology begin?

A

Through the development of the microscope

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94
Q

What did Anton van Leeuwenhoek do?

A

First observed microbes with 300x magnification lens

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95
Q

Who is considered the father of microbiology?

A

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

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96
Q

When was Leeuwenhoek’s work with microorganisms?

A

1676

97
Q

What did Robert Hooke do?

A

Developed cell theory

98
Q

What is cell theory?

A

The theory that all living things are made up of cells

99
Q

Which scientist first observed microorganisms?

A

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

100
Q

Which scientist developed cell theory?

A

Robert Hooke

101
Q

What is the spontaneous generation theory?

A

The theory that life arises from nonliving matter

102
Q

Which scientist first studied spontaneous generation theory?

A

John Needham

103
Q

What did John Needham do?

A

Heated a nutrient broth, and placed it in a covered flask. He observed microbial growth, and supported spontaneous generation

104
Q

What is biogenesis?

A

The theory that living cells only arise from preexisting living cells

105
Q

Which scientist first studied biogenesis?

A

Lazzaro Spallanzani

106
Q

What did Lazzaro Spallanzani do?

A

Sealed nutrient broth in a flask, and heated it. He observed no microbial growth, and supported biogenesis

107
Q

What would be the consequence of spontaneous generation theory if it was accurate?

A

There would be no need to study transmission or prevention of microbial diseases

108
Q

Which experiment settled the spontaneous generation / biogenesis debate?

A

Louis Pasteur’s experiment

109
Q

What did Louis Pasteur do?

A

Perform an experiment with an S-shaped flask to prove the biogenesis theory

110
Q

What are the steps (2) of the Pasteur experiment?

A
  1. Heat a nutrient broth in an S-shaped flask

2. Then, tilt the flask to reach the neck

111
Q

What is the significance of the S-shaped flask?

A

It could trap microorganisms from the air

112
Q

What was the result of the first half of the Pasteur experiment?

A

There was no microbial growth

113
Q

What was the conclusion of the first half of the Pasteur experiment?

A

Microbes could not grow, since none were present

114
Q

What was the result of the second half of the Pasteur experiment?

A

There was microbial growth

115
Q

What was the conclusion of the second half of the Pasteur experiment?

A

Microbes could grow, since they came from the air

116
Q

What was the significance of tilting the flask in the Pasteur experiment?

A

It brought the microbes from the air in contact with the nutrient broth

117
Q

What is pasteurization?

A

The application of high heat for a brief period of time

118
Q

What is the purpose of pasteurization?

A

To inactivate microorganisms (example: extend shelf life)

119
Q

Where is pasteurization used?

A

In the food industry to extend shelf life

120
Q

What is the difference between pasteurization and sterilization?

A

Sterilization kills spores, while pasteurization does not

121
Q

What did Robert Koch do?

A

Found new procedures for growing bacteria, and developed germ theory

122
Q

Who found new procedures for growing bacteria?

A

Robert Koch

123
Q

What new procedure did Robert Koch develop?

A

Using solidified agar (liquid culture media)

124
Q

Who developed germ theory?

A

Robert Koch

125
Q

What is germ theory?

A

A specific organism causes a specific disease

126
Q

What are Koch’s postulates?

A

A set of 4 rules to determine the cause of an infectious disease

127
Q

What diseases did Koch work with?

A

Anthrax and tuberculosis

128
Q

Throughout history, what has killed the most humans?

A

Infectious diseases

129
Q

What was the most fatal pandemic in human history?

A

The black death

130
Q

How come the black death was so deadly?

A

People didn’t understand the cause of the infectious disease (bacteria)

131
Q

What is the current trend of mortality due to infectious diseases?

A

Steadily decreasing

132
Q

How come the mortality due to infectious diseases is steadily decreasing?

A

Better prevention and treatment procedures

133
Q

What are some examples of prevention measures?

A

Use of antiseptics, sanitation improvements, food/water safety (pasteurization), personal hygiene improvements, and vaccination

134
Q

What are some examples of treatment measures?

A

Antibiotics

135
Q

What is an antispetic?

A

A substance that can kill bacteria and stop infection

136
Q

What scientist first used antiseptics?

A

Joseph Lister

137
Q

What did Joseph Lister do?

A

Practiced infection control through the use of antiseptics during surgery

138
Q

What did Alexander Fleming do?

A

Discovered penicillin

139
Q

Who discovered penicillin?

A

Alexander Fleming

140
Q

What did Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin do?

A

Developed poliovirus vaccines

141
Q

Who developed poliovirus vaccines?

A

Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin

142
Q

What did Lynn Margulis do?

A

Proposed the endosymbiotic theory

143
Q

Who proposed the endosymbiotic theory?

A

Lynn Margulis

144
Q

What did Kary Mullis do?

A

Invented PCR

145
Q

Who invented PCR?

A

Kary Mullis

146
Q

What did Carl Woese do?

A

Proposed the 3 domain classification of living things

147
Q

Who proposed the 3 domain classification of living things?

A

Carl Woese

148
Q

What did Craig Venter do?

A

Published the first complete bacterial genome sequence

149
Q

Who published the first complete bacterial genome sequence?

A

Craig Venter

150
Q

What is the difference between microorganisms and microbes?

A

Microorganisms include only living organisms, while microbes includes microorganisms and viruses

151
Q

What is metabolism?

A

A controlled set of chemical reactions that extract energy and nutrients from the environment, and transform them into new biological materials

152
Q

What is growth?

A

An increase in mass of biological material

153
Q

What is reproduction?

A

The production of new copies of the organism

154
Q

What is evolution?

A

Inherited change within a population

155
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

Active regulation of their internal environment to maintain relative constancy

156
Q

What are some characteristics of life?

A

Metabolism, growth, reproduction, evolution, homeostasis, and adaptation

157
Q

What is special about Dictyostelium discoideum?

A

It can form a complex “multicellular” structure

158
Q

When is Dictyostelium discodeum a unicellular organism?

A

When food is plentiful

159
Q

When is Dictyostelium discodeum a complex “multicellular” structure

A

When food is limited

160
Q

What does glycogen phosphorylase do?

A

Converts glycogen into glucose monomers

161
Q

What are the cell walls of plants made out of?

A

Cellulose

162
Q

What are the cell walls of fungi made out of?

A

Chitin

163
Q

What is phylogeny?

A

Evolutionary history

164
Q

True or false: evolutionary relationships of microbes can easily be determined through fossils

A

False: microbes do not fossil well

165
Q

What microbe fossils have been observed?

A

Stromatolites built on layers of photosynthetic bacteria

166
Q

What are the steps of PCR?

A
  1. DNA is heated, causing it to denature
  2. Primers anneal to complementary regions
  3. DNA polymerase makes more DNA
167
Q

When viruses are not attached to a host, how do they act?

A

Inert

168
Q

How are viruses “inert” when not attached to a host?

A

They have no metabolism, and do not respond to stimuli

169
Q

How do viruses “reproduce”?

A

They disassemble and reassemble inside cellular organisms after genetic material has been replicated and new viral proteins are made

170
Q

How can viruses be used for basic science?

A

They can help uncover how processes in cells work (how the machinery works)

171
Q

What did Paul Ehrlich do?

A

Studied the differences between bacterial and eukaryotic cells

172
Q

What was the danger of arsphenamine?

A

It killed both bacteria and host cells

173
Q

Who studied how drugs could be used to target only prokaryotic cells?

A

Paul Ehrlich

174
Q

How come the atmosphere of Earth changed over time?

A

The actions of microbes that evolved throughout Earth’s history

175
Q

What surface could have been seen in early Earth?

A

Iron pyrite (FeS2)

176
Q

What is the importance of iron pyrite?

A

It is an insoluble, positive charged surface with an affinity for organic molecules

177
Q

What are the controversies surrounding the Miller-Urey experiments?

A

The exact composition of the early atmosphere is not known, and it can impact the results of the experiment

178
Q

What does 16S rRNA analysis of chloroplasts and mitochondria suggest?

A

They are closely related to certain kinds of bacteria

179
Q

Which was first: mitochondria or chloroplasts?

A

Mitochondria

180
Q

How come mitochondria came first in the endosymbiosis theory?

A

They energy that they provide is valuable, and found in most eukaryotic cells

181
Q

What is a progenote?

A

A cell hypothesized to store information in genes not yet linked together on chromosomes

182
Q

What is needed for Darwinian evolution?

A
  1. Genetic variation in a population
  2. The environment exerting selective pressures
  3. Differential reproductive success among genetic variants
183
Q

How come progenotes would be subjected to laws of Darwinian evolution?

A

Genetic variation and mutation was quite high in these early cells

184
Q

What is a mutation?

A

A heritable change in the genome

185
Q

What is the purpose of mutations?

A

They are the ultimate source of variation in a genome

186
Q

What is horizontal gene transfer?

A

Exchanging genes between cells

187
Q

True or false: genetic material can not be transferred between domains

A

False: genetic material can be transferred between domains

188
Q

What is recombinant DNA?

A

DNA fragments stitched together into one molecule

189
Q

What is the importance of recombinant DNA?

A

It allows for microbes to produce useful compounds

190
Q

How is recombinant DNA created?

A
  1. Plasmids are isolated from bacteria
  2. DNA can be inserted using restriction endonucleases
  3. The recombinant plasmid can be added back into the bacteria
191
Q

True or false: bacteria can inhabit more diverse environments than eukarya

A

True: they have more varied metabolisms

192
Q

What dictates the habitat where a bacterium lives?

A

Its metabolic capabilities

193
Q

What are heterotrophs?

A

Organisms that feed on organic matter

194
Q

What are autotrophs?

A

Organisms that can create their own organic matter

195
Q

How does cyanobacteria regain its lost electrons?

A

Through the splitting of water

196
Q

What is the chemical reaction for the splitting of water?

A

2H2O –> 4H+ + 4e- + O2

197
Q

What is glycolysis?

A

The reaction to convert glucose into pyruvate to generate 2ATP molecules

198
Q

What is the chemical reaction for glycolysis?

A

Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ –> 2Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H+

199
Q

What is fermentation?

A

A process to recreate NAD+ from NADH

200
Q

What are the products of fermentation?

A

NADH and either ethanol + CO2 or lactate

201
Q

What is the problem with fermentation?

A

It is not effective for generating energy (ATP)

202
Q

What is respiration?

A

The process of completely oxidizing pyruvate to create ATP

203
Q

True or false: respiration requires oxygen

A

False: it just needs a final electron acceptor

204
Q

What is needed for respiration to occur?

A

A final electron acceptor (usually oxygen or sulfur)

205
Q

What is the importance of respiration?

A

It allows for a lot of energy to be created from glucose

206
Q

What is the danger of respiration?

A

It can create dangerous and reactive byproducts of oxygen, which could damage cells

207
Q

How come UV light is dangerous to cells?

A

It causes damaging chemical reactions to DNA

208
Q

How come aquatic life is protected from UV?

A

UV light cannot penetrate water well

209
Q

How does oxygen help with UV?

A

Oxygen creates ozone, which can help block UV radiation

210
Q

How did atmospheric oxygen lead to the colonization of microbes on land?

A

It allowed for protection from UV

211
Q

What is the biosphere?

A

Regions of Earth that can support life

212
Q

What is biogeochemical cycling?

A

The transitioning of various chemicals between organic and inorganic forms

213
Q

What is nitrogen fixation?

A

Converting atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia

214
Q

What is ammonification?

A

Using decomposition to create ammonia

215
Q

What is nitrification?

A

Converting ammonia into nitrates and nitrites

216
Q

What is denitrification?

A

Converting nitrates and nitrites into atmospheric nitrogen

217
Q

What is assimilation?

A

The process of plants and animals incorporated nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia (useable forms of nitrogen)

218
Q

What is a nitrite?

A

NO2-

219
Q

What is a nitrate?

A

NO3-

220
Q

What is NO3-?

A

Nitrate

221
Q

What is NO2-?

A

Nitrite

222
Q

What is ammonia?

A

NH3

223
Q

What is NH3?

A

Ammonia

224
Q

What is atmospheric nitrogen?

A

N2

225
Q

What is N2?

A

Atmospheric nitrogen

226
Q

What is the process of converting atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia?

A

Nitrogen fixation

227
Q

What is the process of converting ammonia into nitrites and nitrates?

A

Nitrification

228
Q

What is the process of converting nitrites and nitrates into atmospheric nitrogen?

A

Denitrification

229
Q

What is the process of plants and animals incorporating useable nitrogen?

A

Assimilation

230
Q

What is the process of decomposing plant matter into ammonia?

A

Ammonification

231
Q

How do microbes live?

A

In complex communities

232
Q

Who studied anthrax and tuberculosis?

A

Robert Koch

233
Q

What did Alexandre Yersin do?

A

Discovered that the cause of the Black Death was Yersinia pestis

234
Q

How did most people in war die?

A

Through infections of microbes

235
Q

What was the first major antibiotic drug?

A

Penicillin

236
Q

How do vaccines work?

A

They expose a person to an inactivated or weakened version of a microbe to create immunity to a disease

237
Q

What did Edward Jenner do?

A

Inoculated a boy with cowpox to provide resistance to smallpox

238
Q

Who inoculated a box with cowpox to provide resistance to smallpox?

A

Edward Jenner

239
Q

What is the great epidemological divide?

A

People in developing countries without access to adequate health care suffer a disproportionate infectious disease burden

BIO 315 (12 decks)

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