Module 2: American Colonists & Native Americans Flashcards
What were the death beliefs and burial customs of the early American Indians? (not found in your text)
A previous student found one good source of information entitled “Burials of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes west of the Mississippi” by David I. Bushnell, Smithsonian Institute Bureau of Ethnology; Government Printing Office; Washington DC, 1927. The following information comes from this source.
The customs of the many different American Indian tribes were quite varied, and different tribes practiced distinct forms of burial. The natural environment in which they lived dictated the manner in which they disposed of their dead. For instance, occupants of a densely forested region would have different practices from people in open prairies and a sedentary group might differ from traveling hunters.
The author encountered two distinct time periods. First, there is an ancient from of burial in mounds of earth that is very, very old; of which even the Native Americans have little oral history. There were many different forms of burial in these mounds as have been found by archaeological studies of them. The second time which corresponds to the traditions of the Native Americans during ‘historic’ times, evidently refers to the practices recorded by the Europeans since around the 16th Century.
As to the death beliefs of these groups, most of them believed in some form of afterlife. Many of the tribes would place some of the possessions of the dead with them in their final resting place, however not all tribes practiced this. The burial customs consisted mainly of two types: in-ground burial and scaffold burial. In-ground burial was usually accompanied by the erection of some sort of shelter over the grave either of wood or rock, which it is supposed made it difficult for wild animals to reach the body. In stark contrast to this, however some tribes left their fallen dead warriors to be eaten by wolves and scattered among the prairie. Scaffold burials consisted of elevating the body on a scaffold erected upon a tree, or on poles or other edifices.
Most tribes dressed the deceased in fine clothes and wrapped them in either woven or animal hide blankets. Eulogies were often said and a pole was erected at the place of interment upon which was made some mark in reference to the tribe to which the deceased belonged as well as how many people a warrior had killed, etc.
Another interesting practice involved the killing of a horse or horses that were either buried with the deceased or left beneath the scaffold upon which the deceased was placed.
What were the historical happenings during the American Colonial Period that contributed to modern funeral practices?
Secularization and the expansion of industry and trade occurred during the Colonial Period and contributed to modern funeral practice. Considering certain aspects of life, one being death, outside of the framework of the Church can be viewed as a stepping stone to the secular funeral of modern times. The expansion of industry and trade and the resultant elevation of the middle class allowed for the more expensive and elaborate funeral ceremonies as a show of social standing.
In what ways were the earliest New England funerals considered simple, yet dignified?
In the earliest New England funerals, the mourners simply followed the coffin and stood silently as the grave was filled. No sermon was made as part of the funeral (although sermons may have been held after the burial in the church). The mourners would come together at the sounding of the bell, and would carry the dead to the grave in the most solemn manner. The mourners would then stand by as the grave was filled and in most cases the minister was present for the burial.
What type of gifts were given at early New England funeral services?
Gifts of rings, scarves, gloves, books and verses, and needlecraft were all used in the custom of making gifts to announce funerals.
Describe the traits and character of the early New England funeral procession:
The early New England funeral processions were on foot. Two types of bearers were designated: the under-bearers who actually carried the coffin on the bier and the pallbearers who (as men of dignity and consanguinity) held the corners of the pall. The processions were very slow and were marked with numerous stops. If the journey was especially long, fresh under-bearers were substituted along the way.
What were the limitations on the term “funeral directing” when speaking of early American Funeral Undertaking?
The term funeral director is limited to the occupation that 1.) Provides a set of tasks for the care and disposal of the dead and 2.) Takes the form of a personal service and operates as a business enterprise.
What was a “tradesman undertaker” and a “furnishing undertaker”? What were their jobs?
A tradesman undertaker was a person who practiced the occupation of funeral undertaking either solely or in conjunction with another trade. Among the other trades commonly practiced in conjunction with funeral directing were cabinet making, chair makers, furniture makers and sellers, and liverymen. The church office of sexton was also often practiced concurrently with the occupation of undertaker.
A furnishing undertaker was one who practiced the trade of undertaking, but in addition furnished other undertakers with necessary supplies and paraphernalia. The furnishing undertaker made his supplies available to tradesmen undertakers who practiced undertaking in conjunction with cabinet making, carpentry, the office of sexton, or livery work.
How were craftsmen involved in the field of undertaking?
Many craftsmen were involved in the field of undertaking including cabinetmakers, carpenters, sextons, and livery workers. Each of these craftsmen’s trades was necessary for a part of the funeral. The cabinetmakers and carpenters made caskets, the sextons dug graves and directed funeral services and the liverymen furnished hearses and horses to pull them.
How did midwives, nurses, and ‘layers out of the dead’ contribute to modern day funeral service?
By creating an occupational specialty of laying out the dead, midwives, nurses and layers out of the dead paved the way for the American funeral director as a specialized occupation.
What was(is) a church sexton and how did this person affect funeral undertaking in early America?
The sexton was the church caretaker and has always been associated with churchyard burial and the care of the church cemetery. To these English duties of the job along with the ringing of the bell and grave digging, the American sexton also added the tasks laying out the body, being in attendance, directing the funeral procession, and funeral furnishing.
The sexton helped establish the early pattern of craftsman to sexton to undertaker and in doing so, also paved the way for the occupational specialty of undertaking or funeral directing. An interesting note about the sexton-undertakers of early America is that they had a monopoly on the churchyards that were under their care and as a result were in a highly advantageous position over their competitors.
What was an “Inviter to Funerals” and what was his job?
The Inviter to Funerals was a municipal job of the very early Colonial American days. His job involved as his name implies, the inviting of people to funeral ceremonies. In fact, he may have called personally upon those expected to attend the funeral. Interesting facts about this job include that he was expected to comport himself civilly, it was a licensed job, the received equal profits, and they were obliged to attend the burials of the poor without charge.
