Module 1: The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans / The Early Christians and Jews

Question 1

What exactly IS “pagan”?

Answer 1

The term pagan originates from the Latin paganus, which appears to have had such meanings as villager or country dweller. The early Roman Christians used pagan to refer to anyone who preferred to worship pre-Christian divinities. Over the centuries, the term pagan gradually gained the connotation of a false religion and its followers. Today the term is used to define a follower of a polytheistic religion; one who has little religion and who delights in sensual pleasures and material goods.

Question 2

What were the common beliefs of those people that were considered to be “Pagan”?

Answer 2

Some beliefs common to pagans are spiritual beliefs that deity is both imminent and transcendent. Deity is perceived as both make (God) and female (goddess). Gods are identified with the sun, while goddesses are identified with the moon.

Most pagans believe in reincarnation. Each pagan religion has its own philosophy about the afterlife and about reincarnation.

Question 3

What is the composition of western culture today? Is it mostly “pagan”, or something else?

Answer 3

The western culture composed of Europe, North America, Greece, Rome, Africa is rooted in Christian beliefs, but some of their customs are similar to the customs of the pagans.

Question 4

Why was the sun important to the early Egyptians?

Answer 4

The Egyptians believed that the sun was the focus of the universe. All things emerged from the sun, and all things returned to the sun. The sun God Re was the dominant system of belief.

Question 5

Who was Osiris? What was the Cult of Osiris?

Answer 5

Osiris was the god of the underworld and judge the dead. If Osiris justified you, you passed into perpetual happiness, but if you were condemned, you were passed into perpetual misery. Osiris is also known as the God of the Dead.

The Cult of Osiris began its existence originally as a nature religion because Osiris was a good ruler who taught his people agriculture and gave them laws. The cult believed that entry into the world beyond did not depend on magical and mystical procedures, but it was contingent upon the candidates having lived a life free from evil.

Question 6

What was the Circle of Necessity?

Answer 6

The term Circle of Necessity refers to the religious circuit the soul was required to make before it returned to the body. The journey took 3000 years to complete and the souls of the departed often occupied the bodies of creatures of the land, water, and air before being rejoined withe their human body after the 3000 years.

Question 7

How did the plague, or threat of plague affect the burial customs of the early Egyptians?

Answer 7

The Egyptians were concerned with proper disposal of the dead being sanitary. They used dry burials to prevent products of putrefaction from seeping into the soil, thus generating plague. Dry burial was a cheaper form of embalming available to the Egyptians.

Question 8

Why was embalming practiced in early Egyptian society?

Answer 8

The Egyptians practiced embalming for religious reasons. The Egyptians were the first people to believe that the soul was immortal. The Egyptians believed that the dead would resume their normal daily activities in the afterlife; therefore, the process of embalming was done to secure future happiness. the life after death demanded the preservation of the body in its natural appearance

Because the Egyptians were unable to bury their dead during the period when the Nile River was overflowing, the unburied dead created unsanitary conditions which resulted in more deaths. They practiced embalming for sanitary reasons.

Question 9

How did Egyptian social classes vary in their embalming techniques?

Answer 9

There were three grades of embalming varying in the amount of time, attention, and the quality of materials used. The most elaborate and expensive process was used for the well to do.

Question 10

What were canopic jars?

Answer 10

Canopic jars are burial vases used to place the viscera (organs) and brain.

Question 11

Explain the types of canopic jars and the different designs on their lids or covers:

Answer 11

The canopic jars had four heads, each representing four Children of Horus, the hawk-headed god of day.

a. MESTHA: the man-headed, protected the stomach and large intestines
b. HAPI: the dog-headed guarded the small intestine
c. TUAMUTEF: the jackal-headed, watched over the lungs and heart
d. QEBHSENNUF: the hawk-headed, protected the liver and gall bladder

Question 12

Explain each embalming technique that was practiced by the early Egyptians:

Answer 12

A. The most elaborate and expensive process:
Step 1. Removal of the brain that was accomplished by introducing a hook shaped spoon through on or all of the orifices of the skull. The skull was then packed with linen strips soaked with resin bitumen.

Step 2. Evisceration through the abdominal incision. The organs and viscera were then washed in wine and spices. The cavity was washed and cleaned with the same material. The organs then were returned packed with spices, oils, resins and perfumes or either placed in canopic vases. The incision was closed with a plate of wax or metal on which was engraved, ?Eye of Osiris.?

Step 3. Immersion in natron (sodium salt.) The caustic action of the natron solution caused the nails of the fingers and toes to loosen and fall off.

Step 4. Removal from the natron solution. The immersion time varied from 20-70 days. The body was then cleansed, straightened, dried and exposed to the sun for dehydration.

Step 5. Bandaged and spiced. Bandages were used to wrap the body. The layer of cloth were fastened together with gum or glue and fitted to the body while it was still damp and pliable. Expensive ornaments were then attached to the wrapping and the whole encased in a sarcophagus of wood or stone as selected by the relatives.

B. The second method (less costly)
The body cavities were injected with cedar oil without evisceration. The body was laid in natrum or natron (a fixed alkali) for 70 days. During this period, the cedar oil dissolved the organs. The organs were removed with the oils at the end of the embalming period. The flesh of the body that was dissolved by the natron, was reduced to preserved skin and bones.

C. The third mode (practiced in poorer classes)
The intestines were purged and the body was soaked in a soda solution for seventy days. Lack of personal care to the body destroyed most of the features such as hair, nails, fingers and toes. Others were embalmed by plunging the body into molten bitumen.

Question 13

What fluids/chemicals/ or substances were used in early Egyptian embalming?

Answer 13

Wine, spices, natron, perfumes, powder of myrrh and cassia, cedar oil were substances used in Egyptian embalming. A later development resulted in the use of bitumen or pitch.

Question 14

What were the types of coffins that were used in early Egyptian periods?

Answer 14

During the earlier periods of Egyptian history, mats and skins, reed, wooden, and earthenware baskets were used. From the XI dynasty, coffins played an important role in Egyptian burial. They were rectangular and were along the lines of a sarcophagus. Heiroglyphic inscriptions covered the exterior of the coffin. between the XII and XVIII dynasties, the shape of the coffin changed to an anthropoid (man-resembling) coffin. The face of the dead was reproduced and painted in lifelike resemblance. The final development of this type is seen in the portrait coffin, which had a painted face on a wooden panel instead of a modeled head.

Question 15

What is a “sarcophagus”?

Answer 15

Sarcophagus is the name given by the Greeks to a special marble found in Asia Minor and used in caskets. The term sarcophagus later designated any elaborate burial casket not sunk underground. The oldest known examples are from Egypt; they are box shaped with a separate lid.

Question 16

What are “Hieroglyphics”?

Answer 16

Hieroglyphics is a system of writing mainly in pictorial characters. The hieroglyphic system of writing included three separate types of characters: pictographic, syllabic and alphabetic. Hieroglyphic inscriptions covered the exterior of the coffins. There were inscriptions of prayers, genealogies, religious and magical texts that were intended to help the restoration of the body and to give power to the dead in the afterlife.

Question 17

Early Egyptian coffins changed to an anthropoidal or anthropomorphical design or shape. What exactly does this mean?

Answer 17

The shape of the coffin resembled the shape of a man.

Question 18

A person that dealt with the dead in funerary practices during Egyptian times was thought to be of what social standing or class?

Answer 18

The priest (Kher-heb) superintended embalming and funeral arrangements.

Question 19

Who were the individual persons or “specialists” that prepared the body for burial during the period of the early Egyptians? What job did each perform?

Answer 19

1. The Designer or Painter:
2. The Dissector or Anatomist: emboweled and washed the body
3. Pollinctor or Apothecary: administered injections of aromatic powders, oils, balsams, tincture and spirits to anoint the body.
4. Embalmer or Surgeon: performed the embalming process
5. Physician and Priest: instructed the other in ceremonies

Question 20

In what kind of afterlife did the Greeks believe?

Answer 20

They believed in an afterlife of disembodies souls. Their conception of the afterlife involved the separation of the soul from the body and its journey into an eternal and immortal afterlife.

Question 21

The Greeks are thought to be responsible for the introduction of cremation. Why was cremation important to the Greeks?

Answer 21

Cremation was important to the Greeks because of their belief in a disembodied existence. They believed that the flames had power to set the soul free. The ashes of the dead were still thought to have spirit characteristics.

Question 22

What was the Cult of Dionysius?

Answer 22

The cult of Dionysius (god of wine) was a popular cult that believed in an immortal life of the soul. Their rites were intended to produce a wild excitement in which the limitations of ordinary sense life seemed to be abolished.

Question 23

What were the Elysian Fields?

Answer 23

Elysian Fields were a happy otherworld for heroes favored by the gods. Elysian is a part of the underworld and a pleasant abode for the righteous dead. it is here where the soul went when it was united with the cult god.

Question 24

How did the Greeks prepare their dead for burial or cremation?

Answer 24

Relatives or friends, usually a female, closed the eyes and mouth as soon as death occurred. Family members usually prepared the body for burial. Women chosen from the next-of-kin washed the body with warm water. Female relatives also dressed the body that was considered a sacred duty. It was customary to bury the dead with clothing. There was no serious attempt to embalm, but the body was anointed with oils, perfumes and spice because of their belief in a shadowy afterlife.

Flowers, along with a honey cake for the dog, Cereberus, were furnished for the dead body. (Cereberus was the 3-headed dog hat guarded the entrance to Hades.) The dead was dressed in white and laid out in state within a day after death.

Question 25

What was unique about the Greek funeral procession?

Answer 25

The Greek funeral procession allowed any man to join the march to the grave, but every woman was denied unless she was over 60 years old or related to the deceased by blood and was over the age of 16. This was unique because females prepared the body for burial but unless they met certain criteria, they weren?t allowed in the funeral procession to the burial.

Question 26

The Greeks had special coffins and tombs. Explain and describe each of the different types of tombs utilized by the greeks:

Answer 26

The coffins consisted of wood, stone or baked clay. Cypress wood was used in the later periods. Stone was the most popular material used even though it was heavy. Baked clay was decorated with painted with floral designs.

Tombs were stelae or shaft (upright slabs of stone; kiones or columns; trapezae (square cut tombs) or nadia (temple like structures). Tombs were often covered with figures carved in bas-relief, finished off with painting.

Question 27

The Greeks often had celebrations when a death occurred. The celebration might include funeral feasts, sacrifices, and/or suttee. Explain these types of celebrations:

Answer 27

Funeral feasts celebrations broke the bereaved?s fast. Sacrifices were offered at the sepulcher on certain days. Primitive Greeks offered sacrifices in forms of blood propitiations to the appropriate gods. They later substituted food, wine and other alcohol mixtures.

Suttee is the act of widows killing themselves by jumping into the funeral pyre of their husbands. The widow was expected to dress herself in her finest clothes and lie down by the side of her deceased husband on the funeral pyre where she was securely tied with ropes. The eldest son of the dead man then came forward with a torch and applied it to the pyre that had been saturated with oil so it would burn quickly. As the flames arose, the crown raised a great shout, and the noise of the drums was added in honor of the heroism of the woman.

Question 28

The Romans had an “animistic” view of death. What was this?

Answer 28

By having an animistic view of death, the Romans believed that while the soul was separated from the body at death, it hovered around the burial place for its continued peace and happiness. The soul required constant attention from the descendants in the form of food and offerings. The Romans felt that if they stopped the offering, the soul would become an evil spirit and cause harm to those who stopped the offerings.

Question 29

What types of offerings were given to the dead? (Romans)

Answer 29

Food and drink that made the soul happy.

Question 30

What “cults” contributed to the beliefs/practices of the Romans?

Answer 30

The cults of Greece and Oriental East contributed to the practices of the Romans.

Question 31

The Romans also had an “Epicurean influence” on their society. Who were the Epicureans and what was the influence?

Answer 31

The Epicureans philosophy was that the body and the soul, composed of atoms, and simply disintegrated at death. Thus, the afterlife of man was no different than the before life.

Question 32

Who generally practiced cremation and who generally avoided cremation during the era of Roman rule and government?

Answer 32

Cremation was normal practice during the period of the Republic and the 1st century after Christ. Under the Roman Empire, fire burial was replaced by inhumation. These changes occurred due to the rise in Christianity and the spread of oriental mystery cults and their hate of fire. It is important that pomp and circumstance were important to the Roman higher social class, and many avoided cremation simply because they couldn?t ?put on a show? when cremating. The rise of Christianity stressed the hallowed nature of the body and Christians naturally wanted to follow Christ- even to His mode of burial.

Question 33

Classes were important in Roman culture. What were some distinctive differences in life and death among the different Roman classes?

Answer 33

Persons of upper class were put on display for as long as a week, giving many opportunities for mourners to pay their respect. Professional undertakers took charge of the funeral arrangements for the well-to-do class. Lower class members were cremated after only one day.

Question 34

Just as the Egyptians had different individuals that carried out various functions pertaining to the disposal of the dead, the Romans also had these functionaries. What were the five “major” individuals that provided funerary care, and what did each actually do?

Answer 34

Pollinctores: slaves or employees of the libitinarius who performed the embalming.

Libitinarius: the Roman equivalent of the head undertaker. He supplied hired mourners, mourning costumes, other accessories for funeral and arranged services to ease the grief of bereaved, and arranged the details of funeral procession with the designator.

Libitina: the goddess of the corpses and funerals

Praeco: crier summoned by the participants to a public funeral.

Designator: the assistant to the pollinctores, who acted as master of ceremonies and director of the funeral procession.

Question 35

How did Roman funeral processions vary according to class?

Answer 35

The funeral procession of ordinary citizens was simple while those citizens of wealth and importance had a costly public parade. The ordinary funerals were held at night while persons of higher status were buried by day. Torchbearers were present both at both night and day ceremonies. The procession for the ordinary funeral consisted of: a band of musicians in the lead, the body carried on the shoulders of the sons or other relatives, family and friends.

The procession of a higher status person was marshaled with all possible display and ostentation. The designator arranged the order of the procession. At the head of the procession was usually a band of musicians, persons singing praises of the dead, bands of jesters and buffoons, wax masks of dead man?s ancestors, memorials of the great deeds of the deceased, the family (including freedman and slaves) and friends.

Question 36

What are some examples of hired mourners that were used by the Romans?

Answer 36

Hired mourners were usually professionally women who shrieked and beat their breast with abandon. As the ceremony came to a close, the frenzy of their sorrow climaxed with a triple ceremonial farewell, conclamatio mortis, calling out of the dead, as tearing their hair, rending their garments and scratching their faces until they drew blood, they circled the coffin three times, shrieking out the name of the deceased.

Question 37

Who was Constantine?

Answer 37

Constantine was the first Christian Emperor (314 AD ? 379 AD).

Question 38

How did Constantine and Christianity affect Roman funeral behavior?

Answer 38

Inhumation replaced cremation because of the increase in Christianity and changes in attitudes about afterlife.

Question 39

What were the death beliefs of the early Hebrew culture?

Answer 39

It was difficult for the Hebrews to conceive of a clear-cut separation of body and soul. They regarded man as composed of two elements ? flesh and breath. The breath was a spirit like substance that dwelt in life within the flesh. At death, the flesh returned to dust, but the breath persisted. The Hebrews believe the dead posses certain supernatural powers. They also believed that the corpse kept a close connection with the dead body. The soul led a shadowy afterlife in a netherworld called Sheol.

After 150 B. C. Hebrews believed that after death, the souls of the righteous passed to a blessed existence and the souls of the wicked passed to a state of punishment. Both the righteous and wicked souls would be raised from the netherworld at the day of the last judgment to receive their final rewards and punishment.

Question 40

How did the Hebrew beliefs vary from Christan beliefs?

Answer 40

The Hebrews did not believe in touching the body because it was contaminating, where as the Christians had a ritual, Kiss of Peace, where the family kissed the body and was encouraged to touch the body.

Question 41

What were the burial customs of the early Hebrews?

Answer 41

The early Hebrews closed the eyes and mouth of the dead right after death. The body was washed, anointed with sweet smelling spices and dressed in its best attire. On the evening of the day of death, the burial took place. The burial was done so quickly because of sanitary necessity. The dead were not buried in coffins until after the Babylonian captivity. The poor Hebrews were laid on ground or in a shallow trench and a mount of earth was shoveled over it. The rich were interred in natural caves or in artificial sepulchers.

Question 42

The Hebrews had some specific requirements as to their mourning customs. What were they?

Answer 42

The Hebrew mourning customs included:
§ Dress: The original practice was to remain naked until the burial rites were completed. Later it was customary to only remove upper garments. Heads were also draped, and bare feet symbolized death.
§ Signs of grief: To parade their sorrow, early Hebrews cut of a generous tuft of hair between the eyes or shaved off beard. Cuttings in the flesh were signs of grief.
§ Other mourning customs included throwing oneself in the dust. Hired mourners swelled the wailing of the family.
§ Fasting for the dead began at the moment of death and ended at the evening on the day of death.

Question 43

Why was it so important for a male Hebrew to have a son?

Answer 43

Sacrificial offering of treasures, incenses, food and spice were provided to the dead. The first-born had the responsibility of bringing sacrifices to the dead. The Hebrews feared that without a male heir, no one after his death might provide for him the gifts (sacrifices) for his soul to enjoy rest after death.

Question 44

What were the death beliefs of the early Christians?

Answer 44

The early Christians built their death beliefs on that of the Hebrews ideology expanded by the teachings of Christ. Christ preached the infinite and equal value of every human soul. The soul was both spiritual and immortal, and not destine to after life to be a discarnate spirit. No soul could be totally destroyed in death..

Question 45

What was the Christians’ view of the resurrection of the body and cremation?

Answer 45

Christians viewed the resurrection of the body as a miracle of God in that He transformed the body into immortality. In resurrection, the glorified body is patently to be, ?a superior body, like unto those worn by the angels of God.?

Christians frowned upon cremations because they did not believe that a body that was once the temple of the Holy Spirit should be burned except in cases when cremation was necessary to prevent disease. They also frowned upon cremation because of its pagan associations, and because cremation made it difficult to examine the body should foul play be suspected.

During the reign of Constantine the Great, cremation was prohibited in Christendom, but Christianity as a whole has never taken a final stand in the matter.

Question 46

Were classes important in determining Christian burial? Why yes or why no?

Answer 46

Classes were not important in determining Christian burial because the Christians believed that all men are equal in death. Unlike the belief of the Egyptians and Greeks, Christians believed that eternal rewards are not assigned according to earthly rank. Christ Himself proclaimed that all men had an equal hope of the Kingdom of Heaven.

Question 47

What was the role of the Christian family when a death occurred?

Answer 47

The Christian family administered to the dying and took charge of the care of the dead. Elder women ? kindred and friends of the family - performed the acts of closing the eyes, closing the mouth, washing the body, and wrapping in it in a linen sheet. Relatives were allowed to view the face of the deceased and to touch the body. The Christian had a ?Kiss of Peace? rite in which the either immediately after death or at the closing of the casket, a final kiss was given to the body. Family and friends usually dressed in white to mourn the body.

Question 48

How did the Early Christians prepare the deceased for burial?

Answer 48

Christian prepared the body by washing the body. Then the body was anointed with oils and spices as a means of preservation, a means of preventing contamination, and a means to counteract the odor of decay.

Question 49

The early Christians used practiced a “wake”. What was it? Why did they have it? How would it differ from the wake or visitation of today?

Answer 49

The early Christian wake was a practice in which relatives and intimates viewed the face of the deceased and gathered to say prayers for the repose of the deceased. The purpose of the wake was to scrutinize for signs of life while praying that the dead be loosened from their sins. A second purpose to the wake was to give comfort to the bereaved family.

Outbursts of grief were at a minimum among the Christians. The Christian wake occurred either in the home or the church.

The early Christian wake differs from the wake of today in the location. Today?s wakes are not held at the home, but either in the funeral home or the church. People today don?t look at the body for signs of life during a wake. A visitation today serves the purpose of giving emotional support to the family and paying respect to the deceased.

Question 50

What were the traits of early Christian cemeteries?

Answer 50

Because of the persecution of Christians, the early Christian cemeteries were underground so that they could meet and perform their religious rites. The Christian church always demanded that the site of interment obtain a special religious significance. The early burials were in family vaults erected outside the walls. Because of sanitary reasons, there were no burials in the cities. When persecution came to an end at the close of the fourth century, Christians began to have open-air cemeteries as a sign of their new freedom. Cemeteries where located mostly between the walls and the vicinity of the churches even though Roman law had decreed that burial be beyond the city wall because of sanitary reasons.

Question 51

The burial practices became more complex to the Christians. Why were more burials (and worship) were held in the catacombs. What were catacombs?

Answer 51

Burials and worship were held in the catacombs because of the persecution of Christians. These underground hideaways provided a safe shelter for the performance of their religious rites.

The catacombs were originally galleries, chambers and passages, hewn out of soft rock, with public entrances. Catacombs originated in the tombs of the wealthy Christians.

Question 52

What were early Christian processions like?

Answer 52

The Christian funeral processions emphasized a subdued and reverent attitude and a sense of triumph since death was perceived as a victory, marking the beginning of a better life. The funeral procession was limited to the body, its bearers and the family and friends of the deceased. Torches were carried at the head of the procession to symbolize both the glory into which it was hoped that the dead had come, and the triumph of his new state. Psalms and hymns were sung in the procession.

Question 53

Did the early Christians have persons that carried out specialized duties pertaining to the care of the dead? If so who were they and what did they do?

Answer 53

Early Christian funeral functions were carried out by the brethren of the dead under the direction of the clergy. The decani were the overseers of the burial parties that worked in groups performing different functions such as preparing the body for the religious procession, carrying the body, and digging the grave. Two classes of minor functionaries were assigned to visit the sick and bury the dead. The Parabolani class cared for the sick. The laborantes, lectarri, fossarii, sandapilarii and decanii had the responsibility of digging graves, carrying coffins, placing the remains in the ground and performing other related services. These functionaries were forerunners of the modern undertaker.

Question 54

What were the death beliefs of the Early Germans and Scandinavians?

Answer 54

The early Germans and Scandinavians had several beliefs about death:
§ The spirits of the dead were harmful and, if not properly buried, could return the plague to the living
§ In the afterlife, the dead enters into the realms of the gods.
§ The spirits continue to exist in the grave mound. This belief resulted in cults of the dead with ideas of rebirth and the concept of the ?everlasting battle? in which the spirits battled with other spirits.

The pre-Christian Scandinavians concept was that through ritualistic ceremonies, the disembodied soul is freed from the body so that it may enter into a spiritual afterlife. The death customs considered fire as a proper agent in the transforming of a bodily ridden soul into an incarnate spiritual entity.

Question 55

Why did the Germans and Scandinavians practice cremation?

Answer 55

The Germans and Scandinavians practiced cremation for two reasons:

(1) As a protection from the dead: the body was burned as a method of keeping spirits of the dead from harming the living
(2) To free the spirit of the dead: the body was cremated to free the spirit from the body