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Psych 1101 > Module 2 > Flashcards

Module 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Long term memory

A

continuous storage of info; capacity is unlimited

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2
Q

flashbulb memory

A

detailed/ vivid recollections of emotionally significant events

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3
Q

What are memory enhancing strategies for?

A

To help info go from STM to LTM

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4
Q

Rehearsal

A

Conscious repetition of info to be remembered

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5
Q

Chunking

A

Organize info into manageable chunks

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6
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

Technique in which you think about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in memory; involves linking info to knowledge already stored and repeating the info

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7
Q

Mnemonic devices

A

Memory aids that help us organize info for encoding; helpful when we want to recall larger bits of info (steps, stages, etc.)

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8
Q

How to study effectively

A
  1. Use elaborate rehearsal
  2. Apply self reference effects: make material personally meaningful, write out definitions
  3. Use distributed practice
  4. Rehearse; study in spaced, organized sessions
  5. Be aware of interference; study during quiet time
  6. Keep moving
  7. Get sleep
  8. Make use of mnemonic devices
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9
Q

Forgetting

A

Loss of info from LTM

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10
Q

Memory

A

Process that allows us to record, store, and retrieve experiences and info

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11
Q

Encoding

A

Active process of recording info into memory

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12
Q

Automatic processing

A

Encoding details like time, space, and frequency (w/out conscious awareness)

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13
Q

Effortful processing

A

Processing that requires a lot of work and attention

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14
Q

Semantic encoding

A

Encoding of words and their meaning

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15
Q

Visual encoding

A

Encoding of images

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16
Q

Acoustic encoding

A

Encoding of sounds (alphabet or old song)

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17
Q

Spacing effect

A

Remember more when practice is spread out instead of massed together

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18
Q

Recoding

A

Taking info from the form it was given to us and converting it in a way that makes sense to us

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19
Q

Storage

A

Creation of permanent record of info

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20
Q

Three stages of storage

A

Sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory

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21
Q

Baddeley and Hitch model

A

Computer visuals

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22
Q

Atkinson and Shiffrins model

A

3 stages of memory storage

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23
Q

Sensory memory

A

Holds stimuli from environment (light, sound, taste) for a couple seconds; fades quickly and discards things we don’t find important

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24
Q

Short term memory

A

Temporary storage that processes incoming sensory memory; hold max @20sec, 5-9items

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25
Q

Working memory

A

Part of STM; limited capacity system that temporarily stored and processes info

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26
Q

Active rehearsal

A

Repeating info needed

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27
Q

semantic networks

A

memories are organized in ____; concepts or categories of linguistic info, images, ideas, memories

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28
Q

Explicit memory

A

type of LTM; (aka declarative) conscious recall of facts and events

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29
Q

Episodic memory

A

type of LTM + explicit; memory for personal experiences

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30
Q

semantic memory

A

type of LTM + explicit; memory for general factual knowledge

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31
Q

implicit memory

A

memory in which behavior is affected by prior experiences even though no conscious recollection of experience occurs

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32
Q

procedural memory

A

type of LTM + implicit; memory for skills and action

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33
Q

self reference effect

A

the tendency for an individual to have better memory for info that relates to oneself

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34
Q

priming

A

activation of info memory that then affects behavior and memory with new info

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35
Q

memory consolidation

A

active rehearsal to move info from STM to LTM

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36
Q

retrieval

A

act if getting info out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness

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37
Q

encoding specificity principle

A

the hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that info encoded from the cue overlaps or matches info in the engram or memory trace (context-dependent memory - easier to remember when in same environment where encoded)

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38
Q

recall

A

accessing info w/out cues

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39
Q

state dependent memory

A

memory enhanced when internal state at encoding matches internal state at retrieval

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40
Q

serial position effect

A

order and position of info falls has impact on how you remember

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41
Q

primacy effect

A

individuals tendency to better remember the 1st piece of info they encounter than info still being received

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42
Q

recognition

A

identifying previously learned info after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue

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43
Q

relearning

A

learning new info that was previously learned

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44
Q

reconstruction

A

memory is a ____, recreated during each retrieval from scattered connections in our brains

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45
Q

arousal theory

A

strong emotion trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences from weaker memories

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46
Q

engram

A

physical trace of memory

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47
Q

equipotentiality hypothesis

A

some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories

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48
Q

amygdala

A

main job is to regulate emotions (fear, aggression, etc.); involved in memory consolidation

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49
Q

hippocampus

A

part of the brain involved in normal recognition memory and spatial memory; deals with explicit memories

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50
Q

cerebellum and prefrontal cortex

A

can create implicit memories, even with the damage from explicit area

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51
Q

amnesia

A

loss of LTM that occurs as a result of disease, physical trauma and psychological trauma ;

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52
Q

anterograde

A

cannot remember new info; most people have of the two. caused by another brain injury; Hippocampus usually affected –> suggests that damage has been done has resulted in the inability to transfer from STM to LTM

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53
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma; cannot remember some or all events of their past

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54
Q

encoding failure

A

When memory loss happens before the actual memory process begins; In order to remember something, we must pay attention to the details and actively work to process the information through effortful encoding)

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55
Q

memory errors - forgetting

A

Transience: memories can fade over time
Absentmindedness: forgetting caused by lapse in attention
Blocking: accessibility of info is temporarily blocked (aka tip of the tongue phenomenon)

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56
Q

memory errors - distortion

A

Misattribution: when source of info is confused
Suggestibility: false memories come from someone else
Bias: memories distorted by current belief system
Stereotypical bias: involves race or gender
Egocentric bias: involves enhancing our emotions of the past (self enhancing manner)
Hindsight bias: we think an outcome is inevitable after the fact (aka I knew it all along phenomenon)

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57
Q

memory error - intrusion

A

Persistence: inability to forget undesirable memories

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58
Q

proactive interference

A

when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information

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59
Q

retroactive interference

A

when information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information

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60
Q

latent learning

A

form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; occurs w/out any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned (not observable until there is a reason to demonstrate)

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61
Q

cognitive map

A

mental picture of the layout of a space

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62
Q

social learning theory

A

emphasizes the importance of observing, modeling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. ____ considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior

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63
Q

live model

A

model that demonstrates a behavior in person

64
Q

verbal model

A

instructional model does not perform the behavior, but explains or describes the behavior

65
Q

symbolic

A

model can be fictional characters or real people who demonstrate behaviors in books, movies, tv shows, video games, or internet sources

66
Q

observational learning

A

learning behavior by imitating others

67
Q

steps in modeling processes

A

attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

68
Q

vicarious reinforcement

A

if model reinforced for behavior, you are more likely to copy it

69
Q

vicarious punishment

A

if model is punished for behavior, you’re less likely to be motivated to copy it

70
Q

classical conditioning

A

process by which we learn to associate stimuli and consequently to anticipate events

71
Q

instincts

A

innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events (more complex patterns of behavior, involve movement of the organism as a whole, and involve brain centers

72
Q

associative learning

A

occurs when an organism makes the connection between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment

73
Q

acquisition

A

initial period of learning (connecting neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus

74
Q

taste aversion

A

type of conditioning in which an interval of several hours may pass between the CS (something ingested) and the unconditioned stimulus (nausea or illness); being conditioned to be averse a food after a single unpleasant experience

75
Q

extinction

A

the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus

76
Q

discrimination

A

when an orgnaism learns to repsond differently to various stimuli that are similar

77
Q

generalization

A

when an organism demonstrated the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

78
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

return of a previously extinguished conditioned response

79
Q

conditioned response

A

response caused by the conditioned stimulus

80
Q

conditioned stimulus (CS):

A

stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

81
Q

higher-order conditioning:

A

(also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus

82
Q

neutral stimulus (NS):

A

stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

83
Q

unconditioned response (UCR):

A

natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus

84
Q

unconditioned stimulus (UCS):

A

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

85
Q

operant conditioning

A

Organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequences

86
Q

law of effect

A

behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated

87
Q

Negative reinforcement:

A

undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior
which go “beep, beep, beep” until you fasten your seatbelt. The annoying sound stops when you exhibit the desired behavior, increasing the likelihood that you will buckle up in the future)

88
Q

positive reinforcement;

A

desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior (rewarding child for cleaning his room)

89
Q

Positive punishment:

A

add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior (scolding student to stop texting in class)

90
Q

Negative punishment:

A

remove pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior (misbehaving child gets toy take away)

91
Q

shaping

A

Reward successive approximations of a target behavior; Needed because it is extremely unlikely that an organism will display anything but the simplest behaviors spontaneously

92
Q

Primary reinforcers

A

: water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, pleasure and touch

93
Q

Secondary reinforcers:

A

has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked w a primary enforcer (praise linked to affection)

94
Q

Continuous reinforcement:

A

organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior
Reinforcement schedule is the quickest way to teach someone a behavior

95
Q

Partial reinforcement:

A

aka intermittent reinforcement, person or animal does not get reinforced every time they perform the behavior

96
Q

Fixed interval reinforcement schedule:

A

when behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time
Can lead to higher quality output

97
Q

Variable interval reinforcement schedule:

A

organism gets the reinforcement based on varying amounts of time, which is unpredictable

98
Q

Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule:

A

set number of responses that must occur before the behavior is rewarded (getting paid after doing something)
Better suited to optimize the quantity of output

99
Q

Variable ratio reinforcement schedule:

A

number of responses needed for a reward varies
Most powerful partial reinforcement schedule

100
Q

cognitive psychology

A

field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think
Attempts to explain how and why we think the way we do by studying interactions among human thinking, emotion, creativity, language, and problem solving, in addition to ___ processes

101
Q

category

A

set of objects that can be treated as equivalent in some way
Ex. trucks, wireless devices, weddings, psychopaths, trout

102
Q

concepts

A

categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences

103
Q

prototypes

A

best example or representation of a concept
Ex. ___for a dog could be what your first dog was

104
Q

natural concepts

A

created naturally through experiences and can be developed from either direct or indirect experiences

105
Q

direct experience

A

natural concept that involves being in involved

106
Q

indirect inexperience

A

natural concept that involves seeing it but not being involved

107
Q

artificial concept

A

concept that is defined by specific set of characteristics
ex. geometric shapes
Math formulas are ___ concepts defined by specific characteristics that are always the same

108
Q

schemata

A

mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts; Method of organizing information that allows the brain to work more efficiently

109
Q

schema

A

When a ___ is activated, the brain makes immediate assumptions about the person or object being observed

110
Q

role schema

A

makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave
ex. Thinking a firefighter is brave, selfless, community oriented despite not knowing the person

111
Q

event schema

A

aka cognitive script; set of behaviors that can feel like a routine
ex. Hand-shaking to greet in US but bumping fists in Belize
automatic → difficult to change

112
Q

cognition

A

thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory

113
Q

trial and error

A

continue to try different solutions until you solve your problem (commonly used)

114
Q

algorithm

A

problem solving formula that provides you with step by step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome; problem solving formula that provides you with step by step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome

115
Q

heuristic

A

general problem solving framework; mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems; not always best method

116
Q

working backwards

A

useful heuristic in which you begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result

117
Q

problem-solving strategy

A

method for solving problems

118
Q

mental set

A

where you persist in approaching the problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now

119
Q

functional fixedness

A

type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what is was designed for

120
Q

anchoring bias

A

occurs when you focus on one piece of information when making adhesion or solving a problem; ex. So focused on the amount of money you are willing to spend that you may not recognize what kinds of homes are available at that price point

121
Q

confirmation bias

A

tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs

122
Q

hindsight bias

A

leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t (knew it all along phenomenon)

123
Q

Representative bias:

A

faulty way of thinking; unintentionally stereotype someone or something

124
Q

Availability heuristic:

A

heuristic in which you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision

125
Q

Direct replication:

A

conduct exactly the same study again, usually with new participants from the same population as the original study. Successful replication would produce results similar to those in the original study

126
Q

Systematic replication:

A

conduct a study that is similar to the original one, but using slightly different methods or stimuli

127
Q

Conceptual replication:

A

conduct a very different study that still tests the original idea.

128
Q

Crystallized intelligence

A

: characterized as acquired knowledge and ability to retrieve it
Using when you learn, recall, and remember information

129
Q

Fluid intelligence:

A

encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems
ex. Finding your way home from an unfamiliar route

130
Q

Practical intelligence:

A

compared to street smarts. Finding solutions that work in your everyday life by applying knowledge based on your experiences (aka street smarts)

131
Q

analytical intelligence:

A

closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations
Demonstrated by the ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast

132
Q

Creative intelligence:

A

marked by inviting or imagining a solution to a problem or situation
Finding a new solution to an unexpected problem

133
Q

cultural intelligence:

A

ability with which people can understand and relate to those in another culture

134
Q

emotional intelligence:

A

ability to understand emotions and motivations in yourself and others

135
Q

Multiple Intelligences Theory:

A

Gardner’s theory that each person possesses at least eight types of intelligence
1. linguistic (language - poet, teacher, etc.)
2. logical-mathematical (numerical patterns - scientist, mathematician)
3. musical (understand rhythm, tone - composer)
4. bodily kinesthetic (ability to control movement - athlete, dancer, etc.)
5. spatial (can perceive relation between objects + how they move in space - choreographer, architect)
6. Interpersonal (understand emotional states - counselor)
7. naturalist (can appreciate natural world - biologist, environmentalists)
8. intrapersonal (access personal feelings and motivations - key component of personal success over time)

136
Q

triarchic theory of intelligence:

A

Sternberg’s theory of intelligence; three facets of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical

137
Q

1st criteria of creativity

A

originality; idea must have a low probability and be unique

138
Q

2nd criteria of creativity

A

usefulness; idea should be valuable or work→ solution must solve the problem

139
Q

3rd criteria of creativity:

A

surprise; idea must be surprising or at least not obvious

140
Q

Remote Associates Test (RAT):

A

introduced by Mednick; believed that the creative process requires the ability to associate ideas that are considered very far apart conceptually

141
Q

creativity

A

ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities

142
Q

Divergent thinking:

A

comes up with multiple possibilities that might vary greatly in usefulness

143
Q

Convergent thinking

A

: converges on the single best answer or solution

144
Q

IQ

A

describes a score earned on a test designed to measure intelligence

145
Q

Flynn effect:

A

observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation

146
Q

norming:

A

administering a test to a large population so data can be collected to reference the normal scores for a population and its groups

147
Q

representative sample:

A

subset of the population that accurately represents the general population

148
Q

standard deviation:

A

measure of variability that describes the difference between a set of scores and their mean

149
Q

standardization

A

: method of testing in which administration, scoring, and interpretation of results are consistent

150
Q

average score of IQ

A

100

151
Q

learning disabilities

A

Cognitive disorders that affect different areas of cognition, particularly language or reading; considered specific neurological impairments rather than global intellectual or developmental diseases –> not related to intelligence

152
Q

intellectual development disorder

A
  1. Mild; 85% of intellectually disabled population; 3rd- to 6th-grade skill level in reading, writing, and math; may be employed and live independently
  2. Moderate; 10% of intellectually disabled population; Basic reading and writing skills; functional self-care skills; requires some oversight
  3. Severe; 5% of intellectually disabled population; Functional self-care skills; requires oversight of daily environment and activities
  4. Profound; <1% of intellectually disabled population; May be able to communicate verbally or nonverbally; requires intensive oversight –> related to intelligence
153
Q

Dysgraphia:

A

have a learning disability that results in a struggle to write legibly; task of writing with a pen is extremely challenging

154
Q

dyslexia

A

Most common learning disability in children
Exhibits an inability to correctly process letters
Neurological mechanism for sound processing does not work properly in someone with ___
Children may not understand sound-letter correspondence

155
Q

Dyscalculia

A

Difficulty in learning or comprehending arithmetic
Struggling to memorize math facts, organize numbers, or full differentiate between numerals, math symbols, and written numbers

156
Q

range of reaction:

A

each person’s response to the environment is unique based on their genetic make-up; Genetic potential is a fixed quantity but whether you can reach your full potential is dependent upon the environmental stimulation you experience, especially in childhood

Psych 1101 (4 decks)

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