Module 1: Week 1 Int to Human Body Flashcards
What is anatomy?
The science of body structures and the relationship between them
What is physiology?
The science of body functions - how the body works.
Branches of Anatomy
- Embryology - 1st 8 week’s life
- Developmental biology - fertilisation-death
- Cell Biology - cell structure/function
- Histology - microscopic structures of tissue
- Gross Anatomy - bigger structures see with eye
- Systemic Anatomy; structures of systems - respiratory, circulatory
- Regional Anatomy - surface marking on outside of inside organs
- Imaging Anatomy - structures able to be seen with scans/x-rays
- Pathological Anatomy - structural changes gross to microscopic assoc. with disease
Physiology Branches:
Neurophysiology - functions nerve cells; Endocrinology - functions of hormones; Cardiovascular Physiology - functions of heart/blood vessels; Respiratory Physiology - functions of airways/lungs; Renal Physiology - function of kidneys; Exercise Physiology - cell changes/organ function/muscle activity; Pathophysiology - functional changes related to diseases
Structural organisation - smallest to biggest
- Chemical level
- Cellular level
- Tissue level
- Organ level
- Organ system level
- Organismal level
What is the chemical level?
Atoms (smallest particles)
Molecules (2 or more atoms)
What is the cellular level?
Cells - basic structural/functional units
Many, many cells in body
What is the tissue level?
Multiple cells of the same type. Have a common function.
What is the organ level?
Multiple tissue types working together with a common function.
What is the organ system level?
Numerous organs working within one system with common function.
What is the organismal level?
All systems in the body working together to keep the body well and in homeostasis.
Which atoms are essential for life?
Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), calcium (C), sulphur (S)
List 4 types of tissue:
- Epithelial tissue
- Connective tissue
- Muscular tissue
- Nervous tissue
Epithelial tissue:
Covers body surfaces. Lines cavities, organs, glands etc
Connective tissue:
Connects, supports organs.
Muscular tissue:
Contracts body to move. Generates heat.
Nervous tissue:
Transports signals/info one part of body to another
How many organ systems are there?
11
Describe the integumentary system:
Skin, hair, fingernails, toenails, sweat glands, oil glands
Functions: protects body, regulates temperature, helps form vitamin D, allows body senses
Describe the skeletal system:
bone, cartilage, joints
Function: Supports body structure, protects body, structure for muscles to attach to, allows body to move
Describe the muscular system:
3 types of muscles: skeletal, smooth and cardiac
Functions: helps body move, helps body posture, produces heat
Describe the nervous system:
brain, spinal cord, nerves, eyes, ears
Functions: nerve impulses communicate to the body, regulate body activities, detects change in environments (in and out of body), manages reactions to changes.
Describe the endocrine system:
pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes and hormone-producing cells. Glands secreting hormones that act as messengers in the body, targeting specific cells/organs.
Describe the cardiovascular system:
heart, blood, blood vessels - heart pumps blood around the body. Delivers nutrients, oxygen, removes CO2 and waste.
Describe the lymphatic system:
lymphatic fluid, vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils, immune cells
Function: Takes lipids and proteins back into cardiovascular system. Place that immune cells mature - T cells in Thymus. Protects body.
Digestive System:
mouth, throat (pharynx), oesophagus, stomach, small intenstine, large intestine, anus, pancreas, gall bladder, liver, salivary glands.
Function: Digestion, absorption of nutrients/energy. Removal of waste.
Urinary/Renal System:
kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
Function: regulates acid-base balance, regulates mineral balance, regulates volume in blood, regulates red blood cell production, rids body of waste, filters blood.
Reproductive System:
gonads (testes/ovaries), uterine tubes, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, penis
Function: reproduction. Reproductive hormone regulation.
How much carbohydrate makes up body composition?
2-3%
What percentage of a lean adult body mass is fats?
18-25%
Fatty acids:
Generate ATP
Form triglycerides & phospholipids
Triglycerides:
Protection, insulation, energy storage in adipose tissue
Phospholipids:
Main component cell membrane
Steroids:
Req vitamin D, sex homrones, adrenal hormones
Thoracic Cavity:
Mediastinum
Pericardial cavity
Pleural cavity (right/left)
Abdominopelvic Cavity:
Abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
What is the serous membrane?
3 x serous membranes:
pleural cavity - the pleura
pericardial cavity - the pericardium
peritoneum cavity (abdomen) - the peritoneum
All cavities have a visceral membrane (attached to organs) and a parietal layer (lining cavity walls).
All membranes epithelium tissue.
Visceral and parietal membranes have serous fluid in between them.
What are the names of the four quadrants of the thoracic/abdominopelvic regions
Median line (middle of chest) Transumbilical line (across waist) Right upper quadrant Left upper quadrant Right lower quadrant Left lower quadrant
What are the 4 x major classes of organic molecules
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids (DNA/RNA)
Organic molecules always contain:
Carbon
Main function of carbohydrates?
Provide energy for life - ATP
What does ATP stand for?
Adenosine Triphosphate
What are the three main groups of carbohydrates?
Sugars
Starches
Glycogen
What are the 3 types of sugars?
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
What are the three main monosaccharides (hexoses)?
Glucose
Fructose
Galatose
What are the three disaccharides?
Sucrose
Lactose
Maltose
What is the common polysaccharide stored in the body?
Glycogen - glucose stored in liver and muscles
Give examples of polysaccharides:
Glycogen
Starches
Cellulose/fibre
How many amino acids in the body?
20
How many amino acids are essential amino acids?
9 - 11 can be made by body
Chains of amines are known as what?
Peptides
What types are peptides are there?
Dipeptides - 2 joined amino acids
Tripeptides - 3 joined amino acids
Coligopeptides - 4-9 joined amino acids
polypeptides - 10-2000 or more (Titin = approx 34,000 amino acids)
5 Roles of proteins are?
- Stuctural - framework of body - collage in bone, keratin nails and hair
- Regulatory - hormones/neurotransmitters (insulin/substance P - neuropeptide) regulate body processes, control growth/development.
- Contractile - contracts muscles to enable movement - myosin & actin in muscles
- Transporters - carry lipids/oxygen etc around body - haemoglobin, integral transporters in plasma membrane
- Catalytic - form enzymes/facilitate chemical reactions: ATPase, amylase, sucrose
- Immunological - antibodies, interleukins - protects body from antigens
Carbon is useful to living things because?
Can form bonds with thousands of atoms = make large molecules = build different structures with many functions.
Elements that commonly bond with carbon are?
Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus.
A chain of carbons in an organic molecule is called?
A carbon skeleton
Many carbons bonded with hydrogen is called?
Hydrocarbon
Side groups are indicated by which letter?
R
A hydroxly group consists of:
R-O-H (OH) - polar/hydrophillic (electronegative O atom) - i.e. alcohols have OH group
A sulphydryl Group consists of:
R-H-S (SH) - polar/hydrophillic - i.e. thiols and some amino acids have SH goup
A carbonyl group consists of:
Carbon double bonded with oxygen, with either 2 x R groups or 1 x R group and 1 x hydrogen - R-C=O-R or H. Aldehydes have a carbonyl group at end of carbon skeleton
A carboxyl group consists of:
COOH - Carbon double bonded with oxygen, with an R group and an OH group. Amino acids have a carboxyl group at one end. Hydrophillic.
An ester group consists of:
Carbon double bonded with oxygen with an R group on one side, an Oxygen and R group on other side.
A phosphate group consists of:
-PO42-
Hydrophillic. 3 x phosphate groups in APT
An amino group consists of:
NH2 - all amino acids have an amino group. Can p/u an additional H atom - gives it a positive charge.
Small molecules can come together to make?
Macromolecules
Macromolecules also known as?
Polymers = many parts
Building blocks of polymers are:
monomers = one
Molecules are joined by which process?
Dehydration process (condensation) - H from one molecule, OH from other molecule
What is created by dehydration process
H20
What are isomers?
Molecules with the same formulas but different structures
Molecular formula for glucose and fructose
C6H12O6
Types of carbohydrates:
Sugars, glycogen, starches, cellulose
Deoxyribose is?
Sugar, building block in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
2 x 5-carbon sugars are?
Deoxyribose & ribose
Cellulose is?
A polysaccharide - part of plant wall. Not digested. Assists moving food through GI tract. Food source for microbiome.
What are the two main essential fatty acids?
omega 3, omega 6 - polyunsaturated fatty acids - cis fatty acids
Effects of Omega 3 & Omega 6 are?
- Reduction of heart disease and stroke
- Lowered LDL cholesterol
- Raised HDL cholesterol
- Reduction of bone loss
- Increased used of calcium
- Reduced inflammation
- Greater wound healing
- Improved skin conditions i.e. acne
- Improved mental function
What does cis mean?
Occurs in monounsaturated/polyunsaturated fatty acids. Cis is when the hydrogens of each double-bonded carbon are on the same side of the hydrocarbon chain.
What is the role of cis fatty acids in the body?
Used by body to make hormone-like regulators and cell membranes
What is hydrogenation?
Hydrogens are added to cis fatty acids - unsaturated. More saturated. Not healthy. Similar health implications as fatty acids.
What does hydrogenation do to oils?
Makes oils more solid at room temperature. Reduces oil’s rancidity over time.
Describe the composition of a phospholipid:
Example - Lecithin: Glycerol backbone (3-carbon, 5 hydrogen, O x 3 - 3 x hydrogen’s lost in dehydration process with fatty acid/phosphate group bonding), 2 x fatty acids (hydrocarbon chain with methyl group), 1 x phosphate group (P043-) and a molecule of choline, including an atom of nitrogen.
Fatty acid component - tails = hydrophobic, soluble in fat
Phosphate group & nitrogen - head = hydrophilic, soluble in water
Both hydrophobic & hydrophilic = amphipathic
Amphipathic means?
Molecules are both hydrophobic & hydrophilic
Describe the composition of steroids:
4 x rings of carbon atoms (non-polar) with hydrocarbon tail
Have at least 1 x hydroxyl group (OH)
Slightly amphipathic
List types of steroids:
Cholesterol Oestrogens Testosterone Cortisol Bile Salts (made from cholesterol by liver) Vitamin D
Some steroids synthesised from cholesterol
What are eicosanoids?
20-carbon fatty acids
What are the two subclasses of eicosanoids?
prostaglandins
Leukotrienes
Both act as hormones
Impacts of protaglandins on the body
Modify hormone responses
Initiates healing response by triggering actions that cause pain to be felt, fever, inflammation.
They stimulate blood clots, restriction of blood vessels if bleeding.
Dilates airways to lungs.
Regulates body temperature.
Effects of leukotrienes:
Part of the inflammatory response
Which element is part of the composition of proteins but not in the other organic molecules (except for phospholipids)?
Nitrogen
Elements in proteins are:
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen nitrogen. Some include sulphur.
What proportion of a lean adult body is protein?
12-18%
Describe the chemical structure of amino acids:
Main carbon with a hydrogen attached. An amino group (NH2). A carboxy/acid group (COOH - carbon/oxygen double-bonded plus OH) plus side group specific to each amino acid. R represents side group.
What is the disorder that develops through lack of protein?
Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM)
How many structural levels with proteins?
4
What is the first level of protein structure?
Primary Structure: genetically determined sequencing of amino acids into polypeptide chains with covalent peptide bonds
Name a cellular issue associated with disturbances in amino acid sequencing:
Sickle-cell anaemia - valine replaces glutamate in amino acid sequence for haemoglobin. Causes flat shaped cell. Cannot fit through blood vessels. Cannot deliver oxygen.
What is the secondary protein structure:
Secondary Structure: twisting and folding of amino acids in peptide chains - alpha helixes / beta pleated sheets.
What is the tertiary protein structure?
Tertiary Structure: Proteins fold to form 3D shapes and these shapes determine their function. Factors affecting
3D shapes include:
hydrogen bonds
disulphide bridges
S-S covalent bonds (sulphydryl groups of two amino acids, cystein)
ionic bonds (magnetic pulls - +/- = opposites attract)
hydrophobic/hydrophilic - hydrophobic parts inside the structure, hydrophilic on the outside
Do proteins have help folding?
Yes, chaperones help proteins fold.
Chaperones are: proteins that assist in folding
What is the quaternary structure of proteins?
Some proteins have more than one polypeptide chain. Not all. The way that these separate polypeptide chains relate to each other is the quaternary structure of proteins. Bonds in quaternary structures, same as tertiary structures.
hydrogen bonds
disulphide bridges
S-S covalent bonds (sulphydryl groups of two amino acids, cystein)
ionic bonds (magnetic pulls - +/- = opposites attract)
hydrophobic/hydrophilic - hydrophobic parts inside the structure, hydrophilic on the outside
Where does protein folding occur?
in the rough endoplasmic reticulum
What are the two classifications of protein shapes?
a) fibrous - structural: collagen, elastin, keratin, dystrophin (muscles), fibrin (blood clots)
b) globular - spherically shaped/dissolve in water/metabolic functions: enzymes, antibodies, haemoglobin, lipoproteins, membrane proteins
How does homeostasis support proteins?
Maintenance of pH balance of fluids/temperature ensures protein shape stays intact. Changes in pH balance and temp can denature (unravel) proteins. Denatured proteins cannot function.
What is homeostasis?
Balance/equilibrium of internal systems kept in balance by regulatory systems. Narrow range of conditions set for health/life. Homeostasis, keeps body systems within this narrow range.
Which systems are responsible for detecting, communicating and responding to a change in internal/external environment, maintaining homeostasis?
Nervous system and endocrine system
Nervous system - quick responder. Endocrine system, hormone communicators, slower.
Homeostasis feedback loop:
- Receptor - monitors changes from set-point. Sends message to Control Center
- Control Centre - sets set-point initially. Analyses changes in body. Determines response. Communicates through nervous system/endocrine system
- Effector - receives message from Control Centre. Puts response in action. Returns body to balance/set-point.
Describe the negative feedback:
Reverses change in a controlled condition. Brings back to balance/set-point. Commonly used to maintain homeostasis.
Describe positive feedback:
Continues/strengthens a change in the controlled condition. Not common. Useful in childbirth, strengthening contractions initiated to ensure baby is born.
Describe disorder:
abnormality in structure/function
Describe disease:
illness with specific characteristics/symptoms
Describe local disease:
illness/symptoms affecting one location
Describe systemic disease:
illness/symptoms affecting multiple areas of body or entire body
Describe diseases:
Illness/symptoms affecting body. Affects body function. Symptoms are experienced by body. Signs are detective to others - temperature, rashes, inflammation, blood pressure etc.
Describe epidemiology:
Study of why and when diseases occur and the transmission between individuals and the wider community.
Describe pharmacology:
Science looking at the use/effect of drugs
