Module 1 Flashcards
Critical Thinking Definition
..Is self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored and self-corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem-solving abilities, as well as a commitment to overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.
Methods of Seeking Knowledge
- Habit or Tenacity
- Authority
- Democratic Judgement
- Reasoning
- Sensory Information
- Empirical and Experimental Methods
Habit or Tenacity
When something appeals to us we repeat it to ourselves often and turn away from any information that might disturb our happy state of affairs. We find the state of certainty that tenacious beliefs bring us more satisfying than the unsettling state of mind that accompanies doubt. If we do this long enough, we might forget where and when the original belief took hold, but no matter, “I believed it to be true for so long, it must be so.”
Authority
Taking judgment of one or more authorities as sufficient evidence.
Democratic Judgement
Trust in the judgement of many, in contrast to the dicta of single authorities. We become confident about the truth-value of statements when a judgment is shared by many people. But consensus is not science.
Reasoning
Arriving at truth by reason alone. Under certain circumstances pure reason can lead to what is called NECESSARY TRUTH.
Inductive Reasoning
Reasoning that begins with things taken as known.
Syllogism
an instance of a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn (whether validly or not) from two given or assumed propositions (premises), each of which shares a term with the conclusion, and shares a common or middle term not present in the conclusion (e.g., all dogs are animals; all animals have four legs; therefore all dogs have four legs ).
Sensory Information
The reliance on experience for finding knowledge. “I have seen it, I have experienced it. Therefore, I know that it is true.”
Keep in mind that human senses are fallible though.
Empirical and Experimental Methods
Method that combines rationality and observation. At its core, scientific knowledge is based on the application of objective and systematic rules to observations or experiments. “Show me”, “prove it” and “what is the evidence?”
Best way to produce knowledge that is unbiased.
3 Components of any research article
- Context and purpose of the research as reflected in the literature review, statemen of the problem, and formulation of hypothesis.
- The research itself
- The interpretation and discussion of the results
Stages of Research Synthesis (7 stages)
- Formulating the problem
- Searching the literature
- Gathering information from studies
- Evaluating the quality of studies
- Analyzing and integrating the outcomes of studies
- Interpreting the evidence
- Presenting the results
Formulating the Problem (Stage 1)
Ask “What are the variables or interventions the researchers wanted to study?” and “What operational definitions have the researchers claimed are measurable expressions of these variables?”
You must consider whether the conceptual and operational definitions are carefully defined and fit together well.
Searching the Literature (stage 2)
First check to see which reference databases the synthesists consulted. Evaluate whether the synthesists made a good effort to find all the past research, or at least an unbiased sample of all the relevant literature.
Gathering Information from Studies (stage 3)
Examine the methods the synthesist used to extract information from each study. Were the definitions and instructions to coders clear and thorough? Were coders well-trained? Did the synthesists present evidence about the reliability of coders?
Evaluating the Quality of Studies (stage 4)
Make critical judgements about the quality, or how well the study methods allow the inferences the topic calls for. Each study is examined to determine whether its used valid and reliable measures and appropriate research designs and statistical techniques.
The careful reader looks for the disclaimer that softens the inferences the synthesists draw on the basis of the design flaw.
Analyzing and Integrating the Outcomes of Studies (Stage 5)
During the data analysis stage, the separate research reports collected by the synthesists are integrated into a unified statement about the results of the research. Next, we outline some methods for combining the results of separate studies, or methods of meta-analysis.
Interpreting the Evidence (Stage 6)
“What conclusions are warranted by the set of studies?” and “Are the conclusions drawn by the researchers consistent with their data?”
Also need to consider the generalizability of the findings over different types of units, treatments, outcomes, and situations. You must decide whether the interpretation is consistent with the cumulative evidence from the studies. Assessing the strength and shortcomings of conclusions in a synthesis is part of your job as a critical reader.
Presenting the Results (stage 7)
The synthesists prepare their report. Today, most research syntheses, especially meta-analyses, follow a prescription for reporting results that looks a lot like how collections of new data are presented.
3 things a Meta-Analysis should contain
- Estimates of average effect sizes with confidence intervals
- Homogeneity analyses to assess whether the variance in effect sizes is greater than would be expected by sampling error.
- Moderator analyses that examine study features that might influence study outcomes
*If you do not find these 3 basics in the re port, something may be amiss.
Falsifiable Criterion
- Key principle of scientific research
- Any theory must be stated in a way that is not absolute. That leaves the door open for future studies to prove it false.
Minimum Requirements of Research
Systematic Empiricism, Publicly Verifiable Knowledge and Testable Theories
3 Main Goals of Science
- Describe - Make careful observations of events and behaviors
- Predict - Make predictions about whether an event or behavior will occur in a given situation
- Explain - Determine the cause of behaviors (also sometimes seen as the 4th which is control/change) but that falls withing explain.
5 Steps of the Scientific Method
- Identify problem to solve or question to answer
- Gather initial information to solve or answer the question
- Generate a hypothesis
- Test the hypothesis (a. collect data b. analyze data)
- Draw conclusions (and refine the hypothesis
Hypothesis
A statement that is testable (falsifiable). States or tentatively predicts the relation between variables, typically in a very special context.
Anecdotally
adverb
according to or by means of personal accounts rather than facts or research.
“such information is only available anecdotally”
Theory
A formal statement of relations among variables (often comes from hypothesis but not as specific/much more broad than a hypoth).
Research Methodology
The science of understanding how research is performed methodically.
It provides the justification for our choice or research methods.
It’s either qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods.
Quantitative Methodology
Involves collecting and analyzing numerical data. Researcher is predetermining the context.
Its the dominant research framework in the social sciences. It refers to a set of strategies, techniques and assumptions used to study psychological, social and economic processes through the exploration of numeric patterns.
Numerical data
Objective
Generalizable
Deductive logic
Qualitative Methodology
Relies on data obtained by the researcher from first-hand observation, interviews, questionnaires (on which participants write descriptively), focus groups, participant-observation, recordings made in natural settings, documents, and artifacts. The data are generally nonnumerical. Qualitative methods include ethnography, grounded theory, discourse analysis, and interpretative phenomenological analysis.
Non-numerical data
Subjective
Context Specific
Inductive logic
Inductive Logic
Inductive reasoning is a method of reasoning in which a body of observations is synthesized to come up with a general principle. It consists of making broad generalizations based on specific observations.
Deductive Logic
Deductive reasoning, also deductive logic, is the process of reasoning from one or more statements to reach a logical conclusion. It consists of drawing particular conclusions from a general premise or hypothesis.
Research Design
- Overall structure of the study
- A plan to answer your research question
- The overall plan
- The logic
- Focuses on process
+++Serves as the bridge between the research question and the execution of the research
Research Methods
- Techniques, procedures, and tools used to collect and analyze data in a study.
- The strategies to implement the plan
- The logistics
- Focuses on product
Descriptive Research Design
Is used to find “what is”
Examples:
- What is the prevalence rate of depression in women over 60 yrs of age?
- What are people’s perceptions of impact of cell phone us on social relationships?
Correlational Research Design ( relational )
Is used to find the non-causal relationship between variables
Examples:
- What is the relationship between gun control laws and gun violence
- Is an individual’s ice cream consumption associated with his/her personality type?
(sometimes it can be predictive)
Experimental Research Design
Used to determine causality or whether one variable, X, causes another variable, Y.
Examples:
- Does cognitive behavioral therapy reduce PTSD symptoms in abused women?
- Does Ritalin decrease hyperactivity in children with ADHD?
