Module 07: Microbial Physiology and Genetics Flashcards
This is the study of vital life processes of organisms.
Physiology
This concerns the vital life processes of microorganisms.
Microbial physiology
How can scientists learn about human cells?
By
(1) Studying the nutritional needs of bacteria
(2) Their metabolic pathways,
(3) And why they live grow multiply or die under certain
conditions
Why are bacteria fungi and viruses used extensively in genetic studies?
Because they produce generation after generation so rapidly. (Their morphology, nutritional needs and metabolic reactions are easily observable)
What are the six (6) major chemical elements in all living protoplasm?
(1) Carbon
(2) Hydrogen
(3) Oxygen
(4) Nitrogen
(5) Phosphorus
(6) Sulfur
Other elements include: Sodium, potassium, chlorine, magnesium, calcium, iron, iodine and other trace elements.
Combinations of the six (6) major chemicals and other elements make up what?
Vital macromolecules:
(1) Carbohydrates
(2) Lipids
(3) Proteins
(4) Nucleic Acids
These are materials that organisms are unable to synthesize but are required for building macromolecules and sustaining life.
Essential nutrients (certain essential amino acids and essential fatty acids) - must be supplied to organism continually for it to survive
These microorganisms according to their energy and carbon sources use light as an energy source.
Phototrophs
These microorganisms according to their energy and carbon sources use either inorganic or organic chemicals as an energy source.
Chemotrophs.
These microorganisms according to their energy and carbon sources use inorganic chemicals as an energy source.
Chemolithotrophs
These microorganisms according to their energy and carbon sources use organic chemicals as an energy source.
Chemoorganotrophs
These microorganisms according to their energy and carbon sources use carbon dioxide (CO2) as their sole source of carbon.
Autotrophs
These microorganisms according to their energy and carbon sources use organic compounds other than CO2 as carbon sources.
Heterotrophs
These microorganisms according to their energy and carbon sources use light as an energy source and CO2 as a carbon source.
Photoautotrophs (algae, plants and cyanobacteria - photosynthetic bacteria along with green and purple sulfur bacteria)
These microorganisms according to their energy and carbon sources use light as an energy source and organic compounds other than CO2 as a carbon source.
Photoheterotrophs (purple and green non sulfur bacteria)
These microorganisms according to their energy and carbon sources use chemicals as an energy source and CO2 as their carbon source.
Chemoautotrophs (Hydrogen, Iron and Sulfur along with nitrifying bacteria)
These microorganisms according to their energy and carbon sources use chemicals as an energy source and organic compounds other than CO2 as a carbon source.
Chemoheterotrophs (fungi, protozoa, and humans)
This is the study of the interactions between living organisms and the world around them.
Ecology
This refers to the interactions between living organisms and their nonliving environment.
Ecosystem
What is entailed to attain the prime functioning of ecosystems?
Interrelationships among the different nutritional types
(Phototrophs, such as algae and plants, are the producers of food and oxygen for chemoheterotrophs, such as animals. Dead plants and animals would cluster if saprophytic organisms did not break them down.)
This refers to all chemical reactions that occur in a cell.
Metabolism
The chemical reactions that occur in the cell under metabolism are known as what ___________.
Metabolic Reactions
Metabolic reactions are enhanced and regulated by
enzymes known as _________________.
Metabolic Enzymes (can perform if it possesses the appropriate metabolic enzyme and if the genome of the cell contains the gene that codes the production of that enzyme)
Enzymes are known as what?
Biologic Catalysts since they either cause a particular chemical reaction to occur or accelerate it.
What is the action of a specific enzyme (E1) breaking down a substrate (S1) molecule
Normal Substrate (S1) + Specific Enzyme (E1) = Substrate-Enzyme Complex —> Products A and B (S1A & S1B) + E1 (Enzyme)
At any particular time, all the required enzymes may not be present. It can be determined by the genes on the chromosomes and the needs of the cell from the internal and external environments)
What are the different types of metabolic enzymes?
(1) Endoenzymes
(2) Exoenzymes
These are enzymes produced within a cell that remain within the cell to catalyze reactions.
Endoenzymes
What are some examples of endoenzymes? These are used to digest the materials that the phagocytes have ingested)
Digestive enzymes within phagocytes
These are produced within a cell and then released outside of the cell to catalyze extracellular reactions.
Exoenzymes
What are some examples of exoenzymes?
Cellulase and pectinase, which are secreted by saprophytic fungi to break down cellulose and pectin respectively because they are too large to be absorbed by fungal cells)
Cellulase and pectinase are secreted by what?
Saprophytic Fungi
What are some examples of metabolic enzymes?
Hydrolases and Polymerases
What are the factors that affect the efficiency of enzymes?
(1) Optimum pH range
(2) Optimum temperature range
(3) Optimum concentration of enzyme or substrate
(4) Presence of inhibitors
(which all function at peak efficiency)
Under factors affecting the efficiency of enzymes, efficiency in this can be adversely affected if too acidic or too alkaline.
Optimum pH range
Under factors affecting the efficiency of enzymes, efficiency in this can be affected if too hot or too cool.
Optimum Temperature Range (high heat can denature proteins by breaking the bonds responsible for their 3 dimensional shape thus inhibiting enzymatic activity)
Under factors affecting the efficiency of enzymes, efficiency in this can be affected if concentration might be too high or too low.
Optimum Concentration of enzyme or substrate
What are some inhibitors that can affect the efficiency of enzymes?
Heavy metals
(1) Lead
(2) Zinc
(3) Mercury
(4) Arsenic
(can act as poisons by replacing cofactors at the combining site of the enzyme which inhibits normal metabolic processes)
This is any molecule that is a nutrient, an intermediary product, or an end product in a metabolic reaction.
Metabolite
A metabolite can be what?
(1) Nutrient
(2) Intermediary product
(3) End product in a metabolic reaction
Metabolic reactions fall into two (2) categories namely?
(1) Catabolism
(2) Anabolism
This refers to all catabolic reactions in a cell.
Catabolism
This refers to all anabolic reactions in a cell.
Anabolism
These type of reactions involve the breaking down of larger molecules into smaller ones.
Catabolic reactions
What happens when chemical bonds are broken?
Whenever chemical bonds are broken, energy is released. Catabolic reactions are a cell’s major source of energy. (For example diverse inorganic compounds like sulfur, ferrous ion, and hydrogen are broken down to produce carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids)
These types of metabolic reactions involve the assembly of smaller molecules into larger molecules, requiring the formation of bonds. Once. formed, the bonds represent the stored energy.
Anabolic reactions
Explain the relationship of catabolic and anabolic reactions.
Much of the energy released during catabolic reactions is used to drive anabolic reactions.
How are catabolic reactions different from anabolic reactions?
(1) Catabolic reactions release energy
(2) Catabolic reactions involve the breaking of bonds; whenever chemical bonds are broken, energy is released.
(3) Large molecules are broken down into small molecules (sometimes referred to as degradative reactions).
How are anabolic reactions different from catabolic reactions?
(1) Anabolic reactions require energy
(2) Anabolic reactions involve the creation of bonds; it takes energy to create chemical bonds.
(3) Smaller molecules are bonded together to create larger molecules (often referred to as biosynthetic reactions).
Energy can temporarily be stored where?
High-energy bonds in special molecules, usually adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
These are the major energy-storing or energy-carrying molecules in a cell.
ATP molecules
ATP molecules are found in all cells because?
They are used to transfer energy from energy-yielding molecules, such as glucose, to energy-requiring reactions (making it an intermediate and temporary molecule)
When ATP is used as an energy source, it is hydrolyzed
to ___________.
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) - more stable molecule
What is the function of adenosine diphosphate (ADP)?
If necessary, ADP can be used as an energy source by hydrolysis and removal of a phosphate group to form adenosine monophosphate (AMP).
Why is energy important?
Energy is required not only for metabolic pathways but also for growth, reproduction, sporulation, and movement of the organism, as well as active transport of substances across membranes.
These organisms use energy for bioluminescence. They cause a glowing that can sometimes be seen at the surface of an ocean, in a ship’s wake, or as waves break on a beach.
Marine dinoflagellates
Explain the nature of cellular mechanisms in terms of energy.
Cellular mechanisms that release small amounts of energy as the cell needs it usually involve a sequence of catabolic and anabolic reactions
These reactions are known to release energy by breaking bonds and is known as the cell’s major source of energy.
Catabolic reactions (For example, glucose can be catabolized by one or two biochemical pathways: aerobic respiration and fermentation)
What happens to lost energy in catabolic reactions?
It turns into heat.
These are a series of linked biochemical reactions occurring in a stepwise manner, from a starting material to an end product.
Biochemical pathways (Think of nutrients as energy sources for organisms and think of chemical bonds as stored energy)
Explain the biochemical pathways in four steps.
Compound A is ultimately converted to compound E. Four enzymes are required in this biochemical pathway. Compound A is the substrate for Enzyme 1, Compound B for Enzyme 2, etc.
wherein, Compound A is referred to as the starting material; compounds B, C, and D as intermediate (or intermediary) products; and compound E as the end product
Catabolism of glucose by aerobic respiration occurs in three (3) phases namely:
(1) Glycolysis
(2) Krebs Cycle
(3) The electron transport chain
Explain the nature of the phases in glycolysis.
The first phase (glycolysis) is actually anaerobic, but the other two phases are aerobic.
This is a nine-step biochemical pathway. Each step requires a specific enzyme. It takes place in the cytoplasm.
Glycolysis (also called the glycolytic pathway, the Embden–Meyerhof pathway and the Embden–Meyerhof– Parnas pathway)
This is a biochemical pathway consisting of eight separate reactions, each controlled by a different enzymes.
The Krebs cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and the TCA cycle)
In this, acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to produce citric acid (a tricarboxylic acid [TCA]); hence the other names for the Krebs cycle—the citric acid cycle.
What are the products of the Krebs Cycle?
Only two ATP molecules are produced, but a number of products (e.g., NADH, H+, FADH2 ) are formed, which enter the electron transport chain. In this, NADH is reduced to NAD and FADH is reduced to FAD when entering the electron transport chain)
In eukaryotes, the TCA cycle and the electron transport chain occur where?
Mitochondria
In prokaryotes, where does the TCA cycle occur?
Both occur at the inner surface of the cell membrane.
This is a series of oxidation–reduction reactions, whereby energy is released as electrons which are transferred from one compound to another
The electron transport chain (also referred to as the electron transport system or respiratory chain)
A large number of ATP molecules are produced by oxidative phosphorylation
Under the electron transport chain, this transfers electrons to oxygen (final acceptor).
Cytochrome oxidase
In prokaryotic cells, how many ATP molecules does glycolysis yield?
Two (2)
In eukaryotic cells, how many ATP molecules does glycolysis yield?
Two (2)
In prokaryotic cells, how many ATP molecules does the Krebs Cycle yield?
Two (2)
In eukaryotic cells, how many ATP molecules does the Krebs Cycle yield?
Two (2)
In prokaryotic cells, how many ATP molecules does the electron transport chain yield?
Thirty-four (34)
In eukaryotic cells, how many ATP molecules does the electron transport chain yield?
Thirty-two to Thirty-four (32 to 34)
What is the total amount of ATP molecules in prokaryotic cells?
Thirty-eight (38)
What is the total amount of ATP molecules in eukaryotic cells?
Thirty-six to Thirty-eight (36 to 38)
These type of reactions do not involve oxygen. They take place in anaerobic environments. There are many industrial applications of this.
Fermentation
What is the first step of fermentation?
Glycolysis (anaerobic)
What is the next step after glycolysis (anaerobic)?
The next step is conversion of pyruvic acid into an end product. The end product varies from one organism to another. For example, yeasts are used to make wine and beer; the end product is ethanol.
Fermentation reactions produce how many ATP molecules?
Two (2) ATP molecules (Therefore, Aerobes and facultative anaerobes are much more efficient in energy production than obligate anaerobes because they are able to catabolize glucose via aerobic respiration.)
These reactions are paired reactions in which electrons are transferred from one compounds to another.
Oxidation–reduction reactions
This reaction occurs whenever whenever an atom, ion, or molecule loses one or more electrons in a reaction, in which case, the molecule is said to be _________________.
Oxidation (oxidized)
This type of reaction occurs when an atom, ion or molecule gains one or more electrons from another molecule, and the molecule is said to be ______________.
Reduction (reduced)
(Within a cell, an oxidation reaction is always paired with a reduction reaction, hence the term oxidation–reduction reaction.)
Many biologic oxidations are referred to as what?
Dehydrogenation reactions
Why are many biologic oxidations referred to as dehydrogenation reactions?
Because hydrogen ions as well as electrons are removed which are picked up by the reduction reaction.
These type of reactions are known to require energy because chemical bonds are being formed. The energy that is required comes from catabolic reactions, which are occurring simultaneously.
Anabolic reactions
Anabolic reactions are also known as what?
Biosynthetic reactions
Biosynthesis of organic compounds requires energy and the energy can be obtained through what>
(1) Photosynthesis (from light)
(2) Chemosynthesis (from chemicals)
These type of reactions trap the radiant energy of light and convert it into chemical bond energy in ATP and carbohydrates (e.g., glucose).
Photosynthetic reactions
This is the study of heredity.
Genetics
This refers to an organism’s complete collection of genes.
Genotype or genome
These direct all functions of the cell. A particular segment of the chromosome constitutes this.
Genes
This refers to an organisms physical traits like hair and eye color in humans. This is a manifestation of that organism’s genotype.
Phenotype
A change in DNA molecule (genetic alteration) that is transmissible to an offspring is called what?
Mutation
What are the three (3) categories of mutation?
(1) Beneficial mutation
(2) Harmful mutation (some are lethal mutations)
(3) Silent mutations
This is the rate at which mutations occur which can be increased by exposing cells to physical or chemical agents called mutagens.
Mutation rate
The organism containing the mutation is called what?
Mutant
What are ways in which bacteria acquire new genetic information or genes?
(1) Lysogenic conversion
(2) Transduction
(3) Transformation
(4) Conjugation
This is known as the extrachromosomal DNA molecule. An organism that acquires this acquires new genes.
Plasmid
A plasmid that can either exist by itself or integrate into the chromosome is called an ______.
Episome
Under lysogenic conversion, these are known to inject their DNA into a bacterial cell.
Temperate phages (lysogenic phages)
Under lysogenic conversion, this is when the phage DNA integrates into the bacterial chromosome but does not cause the lytic cycle to occur.
Lysogeny
Under lysogenic conversion, the phage is called __________ when all that remains of it is its DNA.
Prophage
The bacterial cell containing the prophage is referred to as a______________.
Lysogenic Cell (Each time the lysogenic cell undergoes binary fission, the phage DNA is replicated and passed on each daughter cell)
This reaction is when the bacterial cell exhibits new properties, directed by the viral genes (new gene products). This is referred to as ________________.
Lysogenic conversion.
This approach in which bacteria can acquire new genetic information involves bacteriophages.
Transduction
In this, the bacterial genetic material is “carried across” from one bacterial cell to another by a bacterial virus; thus, in transduction, bacteria acquire new bacterial genes.
Transduction
How is transduction and lysogenic conversion different?
Note how this differs from lysogenic conversion, wherein bacteria acquire new genetic information in the form of viral genes.
Only small amounts of genetic material are transferred by transduction.
In this, the bacterial cell becomes genetically transformed following the uptake of DNA fragments (“naked DNA”) from its environment.
Transformation
The ability to absorb naked DNA into the cell is called ______.
Competence (Some competent bacterial cells have incorporated DNA fragments from certain animal viruses (e.g., cowpox), retaining the latent virus genes for long periods.)
Bacteria that are capable of absorbing naked DNA are said to be what?
Competent Bacteria (Transformation is probably not widespread in nature)
This involves a specialized type of pilus called a sex pilus.
Conjugation
Explain the process of conjugation.
A bacterial cell with a sex pilus (called the donor cell or the relaxase) attaches by means of the sex pilus to another bacterial cell (called the recipient cell).
Explain the process of conjugation through a conjugative spore.
Some genetic material (usually a plasmid) is transferred from the donor cell to the recipient cell through a conjugative pore
A plasmid that contains multiple genes for antibiotic resistance is known as a what?
Resistance factor or R-factor
A bacterial cell that receives an R-factor becomes a __________.
Superbug
These involves techniques to transfer eukaryotic genes (particularly human genes) into easily cultured cells to manufacture important gene products (mostly proteins)
Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology
These are frequently used as vehicles for inserting genes into cells.
Plasmids
Give some examples of industrial and medical benefits from genetic engineering.
Synthesis of antibodies, antibiotics, drugs, and vaccines, as well as synthesis of important enzymes and hormones for treatment of diseases.
This involves the insertion of a normal gene into cells to correct a specific genetic disorder caused by a defective gene.
Gene therapy of human diseases
This is the most common method for inserting genes into cells; specific viruses are selected to target the DNA of specific cells.
Viral delivery
Why are genes prescribed as drugs?
Genes may someday be regularly prescribed as “drugs” in the treatment of diseases (e.g., autoimmune diseases, sickle cell anemia, cancer, cystic fibrosis, heart disease, etc.)
To build necessary cellular materials every organism requires:
(1) A source of energy
(2) A source of carbon
(3) Additional nutrients
This refers to the various chemical compounds that organisms
—including microorganisms—use to sustain life. Many of these are energy sources; organisms will obtain energy from these chemicals by breaking chemical bonds. Whenever a chemical bond is broken, energy is released.
Nutrients (Some are even sources of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen)
This is the process by which organisms convert light energy into chemical energy. This is also used to build organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. And generate oxygen for aerobic organisms.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthetic bacteria such as algae, plants and cyanobacteria are examples of what?
Phototrophs
Humans, fungi and protozoa are examples of what?
Heterotrophs along with saprophytic fungi and parasitic fungi
These are matters that live on dead and decaying organic matter.
Saprophytic fungi
The substance upon, which an enzyme acts is known as the _______. It is where the particular enzyme can exert its effect of act.
Substrate
They break down macromolecules by the addition of water, in a process called _____________________. These hydrolytic processes enable saprophytes to break apart complex materials, such as leather, wax, cork, wood, rubber, hair, and some plastics.
Hydrolase (hydrolysis or a hydrolysis reaction)
This is involved in the formation of DNA and RNA.
Polymerase (needed when DNA is replicated and when mRNA needs to be synthesized)
These cannot, on their own, catalyze a chemical reaction. It must link up with a cofactor to catalyze a reaction.
Apoenzyme
These are either mineral ions (e.g., magnesium, calcium, or iron cations) or coenzymes.
Cofactors
These are are small organic, vitamin-type molecules, such as flavin-adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NAD). Like enzymes, these do not have to be present in large amounts because they are not altered during the chemical reaction that they catalyze; thus, they are available for use over and over.
Coenzymes (lack of vitamins synthesized with halt all reactions)
These are essentially energy transformation processes during which the energy that is stored in chemical bonds is transferred to produce new chemical bonds.
Chemical reactions
This is the favorite food or nutrient of cells including microorganisms. The two common processes to break this down is known as fermentation and aerobic respirations.
Glucose
The complete catabolism of glucose by the process known as _____________ (or cellular respiration) occurs in three phases, each of which is a biochemical pathway: (a) glycolysis, (b) the Krebs cycle, and (c) the electron transport chain.
aerobic respiration
Explain glycolysis.
Each of the compounds from glucose to fructose-1,6-P2
contains six-carbon atoms. Fructose-1,6-P2 is broken into two three-carbon compounds, dihydroxyacetone-P and glyceraldehyde-3-P, each of which is ultimately transformed into a molecule of pyruvic acid,
In glycolysis, a six-carbon molecule of glucose is ultimately broken down into two three-carbon molecules of _____________.
Pyruvic Acid or pyruvate (which are then converted to acetyl coenzyme A to enter the Krebs cycle)
The electron transport chain includes what:
(1) Flavoproteins
(2) Quinones
(3) Non heme iron proteins
(9) Cytochromes
In the electron transport chain, this is the end of the chain; it is
referred to as the final or terminal electron acceptor.
Oxygen
This is (also called cytochrome c, or merely oxidase), the enzyme responsible for transferring electrons to oxygen, the final electron acceptor
Cytochrome oxidase
This test is useful for the identification (speciation) of a Gram-negative bacillus that has been isolated from a clinical specimen. Whether or not the organism possesses oxidase is an important clue to the organism’s identity.
Oxidase Test
During the electron transport chain, a large number of ATP molecules are produced by a process known as __________.
Oxidative phosphorylation (oxidation referring to a loss of electrons and phosphorylation referring to the conversion of ADP molecules to ATP molecules)
In this, light energy is converted to form chemical bonds. The goal is to trap the radiant energy of light and convert it into chemical bond energy in ATP molecules and carbohydrates (glucose).
Photosynthesis
Bacteria that produce oxygen by photosynthesis are called.
oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria
In this phenomenon, water and carbon dioxide are converted into glucose and oxygen.
Oxidative Photosynthesis
Photosynthetic reactions do not always produce oxygen.
Purple sulfur bacteria and green sulfur bacteria (which are obligate anaerobic photoautotrophs) are referred to as ___________________because their photosynthetic processes do not produce oxygen
Anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria (These bacteria use sulfur, sulfur compounds (e.g., H2S gas), or hydrogen gas to reduce CO2, rather than H2O)
This process involves a chemical source of involves energy and raw materials for synthesis of the metabolites and macromolecules required for growth and function of the organisms.
Chemosynthesis
These consists of a long, continuous (circular), double-stranded DNA molecule, with no protein on the outside (as is found in eukaryotic chromosomes). A particular segment of the chromosome constitutes a gene.
Chromosome
In this, the the information in a gene is used by the cell to make an mRNA molecule
Transcription
In this process, the information in the mRNA molecule is used to make a gene product
Translation
Genes that are expressed at all times are called ______________. Those that are expressed only when the gene products are needed are called inducible genes.
Constitutive genes; Inducible Genes
This type of mutation is of benefit to the organism. An example would be a mutation that enables the organism to survive in an environment where organisms without that mutation would die. Perhaps the mutation enables the organism to be resistant to a particular antibiotic.
Beneficial mutations
This would be a mutation that leads to the production of a nonfunctional enzyme. A nonfunctional enzyme is unable to catalyze the chemical reaction that it would normally catalyze if it were functional. If it happens to be an enzyme that catalyzes a metabolic reaction essential to the life of the cell, the cell
Harmful or Lethal mutations.
This type of mutation has no effect on the cell.
Silent or neutral mutations
This occur is usually expressed in terms of the frequency at which a mutation will occur in a particular gene. This rate varies from 1 mutation every 104 (10,000) rounds of DNA replication to 1 mutation every 1012 (1 trillion) rounds of DNA replication.
Spontaneous mutations
This is a test developed by Bruce Ames in the 1960s), a mutant strain of Salmonella is used to learn whether a particular chemical (e.g., a food additive or a chemical used in some type of cosmetic product) is a mutagen.
Ames Test
This is capable of producing one or more new gene products as a result of infection by a temperate bacteriophage.
Lysogenic Bacterium
This is is caused by a toxin called diphtheria toxin that is produced by a Gram-positive bacillus named Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
Diphtheria (A nontoxigenic C. diphtheriae cell can be converted to a toxigenic cell as a result of lysogeny because of the infection of the phage infecting it with the genome corny bacteriophage)
This is the virus that infects bacteria.
Bacteriophage
A bacterial cell with bacteriophage DNA is integrated into its chromosome.
Lysogenic Cell or Lysogenic Bacterium
The sequence of events in the multiplication of a virulent bacteriophage; ends with lysis of the bacterial cell
Lytic Cycle
A bacteriophage whose DNA integrates into the bacterial chromosome but does not immediately cause the lytic cycle to occur
Lysogenic Bacteriophage
A bacteriophage that always causes the lytic cycle to occur
Virulent Bacteriophage
In this, the the viral DNA combines with the bacterial chromosome, becoming a prophage. If a stimulating chemical, heat, or ultraviolet light activates the prophage, it begins to produce new viruses via the production of phage DNA and proteins. As the chromosome disintegrates, small pieces of bacterial DNA may remain attached to the maturing phage DNA. During the assembly of the virus particles, one or more bacterial genes may be incorporated into some of the mature bacteriophages. When all the phages are released by cell lysis, they proceed to infect other cells,
Transduction
Transformations have been shown to occur between two species most predominantly among?
Streptococcus and Staphylococcus
This during conjugation brings two cells into tight contact.
Pilus retraction
Within the donor cell, an enzyme called __________ nicksthe double-stranded F plasmid DNA and guides one of the strands to a coupling protein (the DNA pump).
relaxase
Although conjugation has nothing to do with reproduction, the process is sometimes referred to as _______________ and the terms “male” and “female” cells are sometimes used in reference to the donor and recipient cells, respectively.
Bacterial mating
Bacterial mating is most predominant among?
Enteric, gram negative bacteria like streptococcus and pseudomonas
This is a protein produced by E.coli that kills certain types of bacteria.
Colicin
These are excellent tools for mapping bacterial chromosomes and for studying bacterial and viral genetics.
Transduction, transformation, and conjugation
Hfr means what
High Energy Recombination
