Modern Biology Flashcards
biotechnology
use of biological agents for technological advancement.
genome
an entire set of DNA molecules in the nucleus is called
lysis buffer
a solution which is mostly a detergent and splits/breaks down cells
proteases
break down proteins
ribonucleases
break down RNA
Gel electrophoresis
technique used to separate molecules on the basis of size
nucleic acid in a gel matrix can be
observed using various fluorescent or colored dye
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA for further analysis
PCR can be used for many purposes in laboratories such as
cloning of gene fragments to analyze genetic diseases, identification of contaminant foreign DNA in a sample, and the amplification of DNA for sequencing.
PCR can help with
determination of paternity and detection of genetic diseases
reverse transcriptase PCR
RT-PCR
It amplifies DNA fragments through an RNA template
reverse transcription
first step is to recreate the original DNA template strand by applying DNA nucleotides to the mRNA.
short DNA fragments called
probes are designed and labeled with radioactive or fluorescent dyes to aid detection
the fragments in the gel are then transferred onto a nylon membrane in a procedure called
blotting
when DNA is transferred to a nylon membrane, it is called
Southern blotting.
When RNA is transferred to a nylon membrane it is called
northern blotting
Only Southern blotting is capitalized because
it is named after the scientist who pioneered the technique, Edwin Southern.
fred Sanger developed the
sequencing method used for the human genome sequencing project, which is widely used today.
Fred sangers method is known as
the dideoxy chain termination method
the sequencing method is based on the use of
chain terminators, the dideoxynucleotides (ddNTPs)
ddNTPSs differ from deoxynucelotides by the
lack of free 3’ OH group on the five-carbon sugar.
if a ddNTP is added to a growing a DNA strand, the chain is
not extended any further because the free 3’ OH group needed to add another nucleotide is not available.
By using a predetermined ratio of deoxyribonucelotides to dideoxynucelotides, it is possible to
generate DNA fragments of different sizes.
The first step is, The DNA sample to be sequenced is
denatured of separated into two strands by heating it to high temperatures.
The DNA is divided into four tubes in which a
primer, DNA polymerase, and all four nucleotides (A,T,G, and C) are added.
in addition to each of the four tubes,
limited quantities of one of the four dideoxynucleotides are added to each tube respectively.
the gel for gel electrophoresis is made of a chemical called
agarose
agarose power is added
to a buffer and heated. after cooling, the gel solution is poured, and once it solidifies, an electric Current is applied
the electric current is applied for sufficient time to
let the DNA seperate according to size;
the smallest fragments will be
farthest from the well (where the DNA was loaded)
the heavier molecular weight fragments will be
closest to the well.
the re-creation of a whole organism is referred to as
reproductive cloning
researchers learned how to reproduce desired regions or fragments of the genome, a process that is referred to as
molecular cloning
cloning small fragments of the genome allows for
the manipulation and study of specific genes, or noncoding regions in isolation.
a plasmid (also called a vector) is a
small circular DNA molecule that replicates independently of the chromosomal DNA of microorganisms such as E. coli
in cloning, the plasmid molecules can be used to
provide a “folder” in which to insert a desired DNA fragment
plasmids are usually
introduced into a bacterial host for proliferation.
the fragment of DNA from the human genome is referred to as
foreign DNA or trans gene
the DNA of the bacterium is called the
host DNA
plasmids occur naturally in bacterial populations and have genes that contribute favorable traits the organism, such as
antibiotic resistance (the ability to be unaffected by antibiotics
restriction endonuceleases
recognize specific DNA sequences and cut them in a predictable manner
plasmids with foreign DNA inserted into them are called
recombinant DNA molecules because they are created. artificially and do not occur in nature.
proteins that are expressed from recombinant DNA molecules are called
recombinant proteins
reproductive cloning is a method used to
make a clone or an identical copy of an entire multicellular organism.
most multicellular organisms undergo reproduction by sexual means
which involves genetic hyrbidization of two individuals, making it impossible for generation of an identical copy or clone of either parant
parthenogenesis or “virgin birth” occurs when an
embryo grows and develops without the fertilization of the egg occuring
sexual reproduction requires two cells;
when the haploid egg and sperm cell fuse, a diploid zygote results
somatic cell nuclear transfer is the technique of
transferring a diploid nucleus into an enucleated egg. It can be used for either therapeutic cloning or reproductive cloning.
The first cloned animal was Dolly
a sheep who was born in 1996
genetic engineering is the
alternation of an organisms genotype using recombinant DNA technology to modify an organisms DNA to achieve desirable traits.
The addition of foreign DNA in the form of recombinant DNA vectors generated by molecular cloning is the
most common method of genetic engineering
the organism that receives the recombinant DNA its called a
genetically modified organism (GMO)
if the foreign DNA that is introduced comes from a different species, the host organism is called
transgenic
reverse genetics has resulted in
reversing the classic gene methodology
gene targeting is the use of
recombinant DNA vectors to alter the expression of a particular gene, either by introducing mutations in a gene, or by eliminating the expression of certain gene by deleting a part or all of the gene sequence from the genome of an organism
_____ developed the method widely used to sequence DNA
sanger
DNA can be separated based on fragment size using _____.
gel electrophoresis
a specific gene can be altered in order to study its basic function via _____.
gene targeting
the first reproductively cloned animal was ______.
dolly the sheep
cellular cloning can be used to study ______.
asexual reproduction
Northern blots are used to _____.
detect gene expression.
The widely used Sanger sequencing method utilizes dideoxynucelotide chain terminators to ______.
generate DNA fragments of different sizes
_____ are created by introducing recombinant DNA into an organism
GMO’s
The process of testing for suspected genetic defects before administering treatment is called
genetic diagnosis by genetic testing.
women diagnosed with
breast cancer are usually advised to have a biopsy so that the medical team can determine the genetic basis of cancer development.
gene therapy is a genetic engineering technique used to
cure disease
gene therapy involves the introduction of a good gene at a
random location in the genome to aid the cure of a disease that is caused by a mutated gene.
traditional vaccination strategies use weakened or inactive forms of microorganisms to
mount the initial immune response
modern techniques use the genes of microorganisms
cloned into vectors to mass produce the desired antigen
antibiotics are produced on a large scale by
cultivating and manipulating fungal cells
recombinant DNA technology was used to produce
large-scale quantities of insulin in E coli as early as 1978.
transgenic organisms possess
DNA from a different species, usually generated by molecular cloning techniques.
vaccines, antibiotics and hormones are examples of products obtained by
recombinant technology
transgenic plants are usually created to
improve characteristics of crop plants.
some proteins require a
eukaryotic animal host for proper processing.
the desired genes are cloned and expressed in
animals such as sheep, goats, chickens, and mice.
several human proteins are expressed in milk of
transgenic sheep and goats, and some are expressed in the eggs of chickens
manipulating the DNA of plants has helped create
desirable traits, such as disease resistance, herbicide, and pesticide resistance, better nutritional value, and better shelf life.
gene transfer occurs
naturally between species in microbial population
The first GM crop to be introduced into the market was the
Flavr Savr tomato produced in 1994.
human growth hormone produced by molecular cloning is ______.
a recombinant protein
several human proteins are produced _____.
in the milk of transgenic goats
_____ have been used extensively for expressing and studying the effects of recombinant genes and mutations.
mice
scientists utilizes A. tumefaciens to _____.
introduce new DNA into plants
In 2001, the first use of genomics in forensics was published.
it was a collaborative attempt between academic research institutions and the FBI to solve the mysterious cases of anthrax communicated via the US postal service.
Mitochondrial genomics is often used to
trace genealogy
Dna fingerprinting is a forensic technique used to
identify individuals by characteristics of their DNA
GMOs are created by ____.
introducing recombinant DNA into an organism by any means
____ can be used to introduce foreign DNA into cells of tissues to cure inheritable disease.
gene therapy v
____ are commonly used research model for studying the effects of genetic defects in mammals
mice
____ is necessary in ongoing agricultural GMO efforts because genetic signatures need to be Linked to traits
genomics
Nylon membrane
Blotting
DNA polymerase
Responsible for forming new copies of DNA
