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MOD5 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 2 types of DNA technology?

A

1- DNA profiling
2- DNA sequencing

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2
Q

What are STR?

A

Short tandem repeats are short nucleotide repeats, which are found in the non-coding DNA (Introns), they are highly polymorphic meaning they have very high variation, thus being able to be different form individuals.

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3
Q

What re the basic steps of DNA profiling?

A

1- Sample collecting
2- Extract DNA
3- PCR (uses primers to target STR)
4- Gel electrophoresis.
5- DATA analysis

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4
Q

How are STR analysed?

A

They analyse the variation in the length of the STR repeats, thus being able to create between individuals.

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4
Q

What is DNA profiling also known as?

A

DNA fingers print analysis (it not using the fingerprint)

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5
Q

What is PCR in DNA profiling?

A

Using a primer to which targets STR, and replicates them with the help of taq polymerase enzyme

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6
Q

What is PCR?

A

Polymerase chain reaction it is used to make millions of copies of a particular region of DNA.

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7
Q

What are the simple steps of PCR?

A

1) Denaturation 96 C
2) Primer Annealing 65 C
3) Primer Extension 72 C
4) Repeats 25-35 times

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7
Q

What happens in Denaturation?

A

The strand is heated to 96 C so the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotides can break.

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7
Q

What happens in primer Annealing?

A

Cools the reaction so that the Primers can bind to the complementary sequence.

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8
Q

What happens in Extension?

A

Raise the temp so that the Taq polymerase extends off the primer synthesising the new strand, and adding free floating nucleotides

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9
Q

What are the 5 things needs so that PCR can occur?

A

1) Buffer- median
2) DNA strand
3) Free floating nucleotides
4) Primer
5) Taq polymerase

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10
Q

What is DNA sequencing?

A

Is the process of determining the sequence pf nucleotide bases in a piece of DNA.

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11
Q

What are the simple steps of DNA sequencing?

A
  1. Extract DNA
  2. PCR
  3. Sanger method
  4. Gel electrophoresis.
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12
Q

What is needed in Sanger sequencing?
(6of them)

A

DNA polymerase enzyme
Primer
The 4 artificial nucleotides (dATP, dTTP, dCTP, dGTP)- dNTP
Template DNA
Chain terminating didoxynuclotides ddNTP (ddATP, ddTTP, ddCTP, ddGTP)
Buffer

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12
Q

What is the sanger method?

A

Involves making many copies of target DNA regions,

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13
Q

What does the Chain terminate deoxynucleotides ddNTP do?

A

They lack the 3’ – hydroxyl group (which is necessary on forming a phosphodiester bond, thus, effectively terminating replication.

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14
Q

What are endocrine glands?

A

Release hormones into the bloodstream.

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14
Q

How does mammals ensure reproductive success (3 ways)

A
  1. Internal fertilisation- increase the likely hood gametes will meet.
  2. Implantation- implanting into uterine lining, increase chance of foetus survival.
  3. Pregnancy- protects young from the external environment, while constant nutrient supply is provided.
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14
Q

What is sexual reproduction?

A

It is the fertilisation (fusion) of a male and female gamete to form a zygote.

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15
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemical substance which acts as messengers

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16
Q

Where and What are testosterone function in males?

A

It is produced b the testes, they are in higher levels than females assist in maintain the sex organ and secondary sex characteristics.

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17
Q

Where and What are testosterone function in females?

A

Produced by ovaries aids in bone growth and density.

18
Q

Where and What are oestrogen function in males?

A

Produced by the teste, aids in the maturation of sperm and spermatogenesis (production gametes)

19
Q

Where and What are oestrogen function in females?
(3 things)

A

Produced by ovaries, which are in higher level in female to aid in secondary sex characteristics, as well as ovarian function, fertility –> thickness the endometrium layer.

20
Q

Where and What are progesterone function in females? (1 thing)

A

Produced in the ovaries, they aid in maintaining the endometrium layer.

21
Q

What is the relationship with progestogen and prolactin?

A

High progestogen (pregnant) –> No prolactin –>No milk
Low progestogen (not pregnant, menstrual cycle occurs) –> prolactin available –>milk available.

22
Q

Where and What is the role of the follicle stimulating hormone?

A

Produced by pituitary gland stimulates the production of follicles in the ovaries.

23
Q

Where and What is the role of HcG?

A

Produced by the foetus (baby), maintains the corpus luteum first trimester of pregnancy.

23
Q

What happens If pregnant?

A

The embryo (baby) maintains the corpus luteum by making HcG for the first trimester, thus the corpus luteum releases progestogen and oestrogen,
- (after that the placenta takes over the corpus luteum)
- FSH and LH is also low

24
Q

Where and What is the role of the luteinising hormone?

A

Produced by the pituitary gland promotes the final maturation of ovarian follicles and the development of corpus luteum.

24
Q

What happens if not pregnant?

A
  1. The corpus luteum degenerates for form the corpus Albican (scar tissue), stops the production of LH and FSH and thus progesterone and oestrogen decreases.
  2. Menstrual cycle begins.
25
Q

What are the steps of the ovarian cycle?
there are 3 phases

A

Follicular phase (1-13 days)-
1. FSH stimulates the development of follicles in the ovaries, releases oestrogen,
2. increase in estrogen creates negative feedback of FSH and inhibits (stops) its production and stimulates the production of LH production.
Ovulation (14 day)-
3. The LH then triggers ovulation.
Luteal Phase (15-28 days)-
4. Then the production of corpus luteum, which releases, progestogen and oestrogen, to prepare for pregnancy.

26
Q

What is fertilisation and where does it take place?

A

The fusion of 2 haploid gametes to form a single diploid zygote, (takes place in the fallopian tube)

27
Q

What is the steps of the fertilisation event?

A
  1. Oviducts (female) secrete a fluid down the female reproductive track, so that the sperm can swim upstream
  2. Sperm reaches the oviducts and the presence of progestogen (basic ph) matures sperm the
  3. The sperm becomes hypermobile and the tail strongly propels them towards the egg, the sperm much then cross 2 layers:
28
Q

What are the 2 layers the sperm has to cross?

A

Corona Radia-a
Zona pellucida

29
Q

How does the sperm overcome the layers?

A
  1. Physically push through the first layer
  2. The tips of the sperm have Acrosome when comes in contact with the glycoproteins they release an enzyme which allows penetration
  3. Surface protein allows only one sperm to enter, when it enters the zona pellucida causing an electrical change barrier n allowing any other sperm from entering.
30
Q

What is the cleavage (day 1-3 of fertilisation)?

A

period where mitosis occurs, where a single zygote cell is divided into smaller cells. (in the fallopian tubes)

30
Q

What are the steps of fertilisation to implantation?

A
  1. (day 1-2) cleavage
  2. (Day 3-4) Morula
  3. (day 5-7) Blastocyst
31
Q

what is the Blastocyst (day 5-7 of fertilisation), then what happens?

A

mitosis continues makes the morula to blastocyst, consist of a single layer of surface cells and develops to become an embryo, implanted into the lining of the uterus.

32
Q

What is the role of the placenta?

A

Takes over the role of the corpus luteum after the first trimester. –> produces hormones like progestogen and oestrogen.
- Stops the womb from contraction, until labour
- It acts an exchange organ; it transports nutrient and oxygen through diffusion

33
Q

What happens when birth occurs?

A
  1. In the placenta
    - Progestogen decreases –>prolactin increases.
    - Oestrogen increases
    - Prostaglandins increases –> initiates labour and contractions- tagetes the uterine wall.
  2. Nerve fibres in uterus stimulates Oxytocin- promotes contraction of uterus and softens cervix.
34
Q

What does oxytocin do?

A
  • More prostaglandins to be made by placenta, which promotes contraction and cervix softening.
  • Further contractions occur giving positive feedback loop.
35
Q

What is the Ovary in a plant?

A

Female reproductive organ which later becomes the fruit.

36
Q

What is the Ovules in a plant?

A

Inside the Ovary, which is the female gamete, which is the seed.

37
Q

What are the male reproductive parts of the plant?

A
  • Anther–> where pollen grains are formed.
  • Filament–> stalk that carriers the anther
37
Q

What are the female reproductive parts of a plant?

A
  • Stigma–> Sticky top surface of the flower to which pollen sticks
  • Style–>Joins the stigma and the ovary.
  • Ovary –> where the ovules formed (seed)
38
Q

What is the Non reproductive parts of a plant?

A

Petals- modified to increase the likely hood of pollinators due to its bright colours.
Receptacle- reinforces the base of the flower which support the weight of the reproductive structures.
Sepals- protect the unopened bud.

39
Q

What is the pollen grain made of?

A
  • Tube nucleus.
  • Tube Cell
40
Q

What is the sexual reproduction of a plant?

A
  1. Pollen is collected by pollinators (bees, wind)
  2. Pollen lands of the stigma
  3. Then pollen has 2 cells (tube cell) creates a tube to allow the pollen to go through the style and reach the ovary
  4. When it reaches one goes (tube nucleus) through to the egg to fertilise
  5. Once fertilisation happens, the zygote is develops into a seed, and then the ovary become a fruit.
41
Q

What is cross pollination?

A

When pollen moves from one flower anther to another flower’s sigma, this cause greater variation. occur where insects or other pollinators are present. (biotic agents)

42
Q

What is Self-pollination?

A

When the same flower drops pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same plant,
Requires less energy, occur where insects or other pollinators are not present.

43
Q

What happens after pollination and fertilisation which ensures the continuity of species?

A

The see dispersed over a wide distance, to prevent the overcrowding and the competition for light and water (nutrient), the widespread distribution increase the chance of the continuity of species

43
Q

What happens during fertilisation in a plant?

A
  1. The sperm cell was transferred by the pollen, which fuses with the egg cell inside the ovary
  2. Then the fertilised egg develops and is protected within the ovary
  3. The ovule then becomes a seed, surrounding ovary becomes a fruit.
44
Q

how to clone a animal?

A

1- obtain mammary cell(somatic cell) from nuclear donor
2- place into agar plate and culture
3- obtain egg cell from egg donor
4- then remove the genetic info (nucleus) via enucleation
5- then using a electric shock the cell form the nuclear donor and the egg cell combines and now has a signal nucleus from nuclear donor
6- then the cell must undergo mitosis and when it forms a blastocyst
7-the blastocyst is placed into the surrogate mother (egg donor)
8-the a identical offspring is born

45
Q

how to clone a plant?

A

1- cut out extract from parent plant
2- transfer on to a plate containing sterile agar jelly
3-add hormones(auxins) to stimulate the plant cell to divide
4- cells grow rapidly
5- add more plant hormones to stimulate the growth of roots and stem
6- transfer the plantlet into potting tray where it will develop into plany

46
Q

gene cloning?

A

1.get a bacterium from an e coil
2.then we get the favourable gene (insulin normal cell)
3.take plasmid from the bacterium using restrictive enzymes we take the gene and plasmid and add together via base paring
4.add DNA ligase, which attaches the plasmid and gene together as they have sticky ends.
5. then we place recombinant DNA back into the bacterium
6- Then the bacterium undergoes binary fission of the bacterium
7- hormone insulin is extracted from the bacterium, which then given to patients

Biology (4 decks)

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