mod 5/6 ch9 treas Flashcards
Development
Development refers to the process of adapting to one’s body and environment over time, which is enabled by increasing complexity of function and skill progression.
Growth
Growth refers to physical changes that occur over time, such as increases in height, sexual maturation, or gains in weight and muscle tone. Growth is the physical aspect of development; the rest is behavioral.
Nature vs nurture
Nature refers to genetic endowment, whereas nurture is the influence of the environment on the individual.
Principles of Growth and Development:
Growth and development usually follow an orderly, predictable pattern.
However, the timing, rate of change, and response to change are unique for each individual.
Growth and development follow a cephalocaudal pattern,
Growth and development follow a cephalocaudal pattern, beginning at the head and progressing down to the chest, trunk, and lower extremities. The following are examples:
Cephalocaudal growth—When an infant is born, the head is the largest portion of the body. In the first year, the head, chest, and trunk gain in size, yet the legs remain short. Growth of the legs is readily apparent in the second year.
Cephalocaudal development—This is the tendency of infants to use their arms before their legs.
Growth and development proceed in a proximodistal pattern
Growth and development proceed in a proximodistal pattern, beginning at the center of the body and moving outward.
Proximodistal growth—This occurs in utero, for example, when the baby’s central body is formed before the limbs.
Proximodistal development—The infant first begins to focus his eyes, then lifts his head, and later pushes up and rolls over. As the infant gains strength and coordination distally, he will crawl and later walk.
Simple skills develop separately and independently.
Simple skills develop separately and independently. Later they are integrated into more complex skills. Many complex skills actually represent a compilation of simple skills. For example, feeding yourself requires the ability to find your mouth, grasp an object, control movement of that object, coordinate movement of the hand from the plate to the mouth, and swallow solid food.
Each body system grows at its own rate.
Each body system grows at its own rate. This principle is readily apparent in fetal development and the onset of puberty. In the years leading up to puberty, the cardiovascular, respiratory, and nervous systems grow and develop dramatically, yet the reproductive system changes very little. Puberty is a series of changes that lead to full development of the reproductive system and triggers growth in the musculoskeletal system.
Body system functions become increasingly differentiated over time.
Body system functions become increasingly differentiated over time. Have you ever seen a newborn respond to a loud noise? The newborn’s startle response involves the whole body. With maturity, the response becomes more focused, for example, covering the ears. An adult is often able to identify the location of the sound and distinguish the origin of the sound.
Developmental Task Theory
Robert Havighurst theorized that learning is a lifelong process. He believed a person moves through six life stages, each associated with a number of tasks that must be learned. Failure to master a task leads to imbalance within the individual, unhappiness, and difficulty mastering future tasks and interacting with others. Conceptually, a developmental task is “midway between an individual need and societal demand. It assumes an active learner interacting with an active social environment” (1971, p. vi). Table 9-1 presents the tasks associated with each stage of life.
Infants and toddlers
Infants and Toddlers
Physical Development
Walking
Taking solid foods
Talking
Controlling bowel and bladder elimination
Learning sex differences and acquiring sexual modesty
Cognitive and Social Development
Acquiring psychological stability
Forming concepts; learning language
Getting ready to read
Preschool and School Age
Physical Development
Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
Cognitive and Social Development
Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism
Learning to get along with age-mates
Learning masculine or feminine social role
Acquiring fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
Developing a conscience, morality, and a scale of values
Achieving personal independence
Acquiring attitudes toward social groups and institutions
Adolescents
Physical Development
Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively
Cognitive and Social Development
Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes
Achieving masculine or feminine social role
Developing emotional independence from parents and other adults
Preparing for future marriage and family life
Preparing for a career
Acquiring values and an ethical system to guide behavior; developing an ideology
Aspiring to and achieving socially responsible behavior
Young Adults
Cognitive and Social Development
Choosing a mate
Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
Learning to live with a partner
Rearing children
Managing a home
Establishing an occupation
Taking on community responsibilities
Finding a compatible social group
Middle Adults
Physical Development
Adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age
Cognitive and Social Development
Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one’s occupational career
Developing adult leisure-time activities
Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
Older adults
chapter 10
Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychoanalytic theory was the foremost theory of early 20th-century psychotherapy. Freud developed his theory in the Victorian era, when societal norms were very strict; sexual repression and male dominance over female behavior were the cultural standard. Because of this, many of today’s social scientists question whether the theory is relevant to life in the 21st century.
KEY POINT: Freud’s psychoanalytic theory focuses on the motivation for human behavior and personality development. He believed that development is maintained by instinctual drives, such as libido (sexual instinct), aggression, and survival
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
Oral
Birth–18 mo
The infant’s primary needs are centered on the oral zone: lips, tongue, mouth. The need for hunger and pleasure is satisfied through the oral zone. Trust is developed through the meeting of needs. When needs are not met, aggression can manifest itself in the form of biting, spitting, or crying.
Anal
18 mo–3 yr
Neuromuscular control over the anal sphincter allows the child to have control over expulsion or retention of feces. This coincides with the child’s struggle for separation and independence from caregivers. Successful completion of this stage yields a child who is self-directed, cooperative, and without shame. Conversely, the anal child exhibits willfulness, stubbornness, and need for orderliness.
Phallic
3–6 yr
The focus is on the genital organs. This coincides with the development of gender identity. Unconscious sexual feelings toward the parent of the opposite sex are common. Children emerge from this stage with a sense of sexual curiosity and a mastery of their instinctual impulses.
Latency
6–12 yr
Ego functioning matures, and sexual urges diminish. The child focuses his energy on same-sex relationships and mastery of his world, including relationships with significant others (teachers, coaches).
Genital
13–20 yr
Puberty causes an intensification of instinctual drives, particularly sexual. The focus of this stage is the resolution of previous conflicts and the development of a mature identity and the ability to form adult relationships.
In Freud’s theory, the personality consists of the id, ego, and superego—different parts that develop at different life stages. Each factor, or force, has a unique function:
Id
The id represents instinctual urges, pleasure, and gratification, such as hunger, procreation, pleasure, and aggression. We are born with our id. It is dominant in infants and young children, as well as older children and adults who cannot control their urges.
ego
The ego begins to develop around 4 to 6 months of age, and is thought to represent reality. It strives to balance what is wanted (id) and what is possible to obtain or achieve.
superego
The superego is sometimes referred to as our conscience. This force develops in early childhood (aged 5–6) as a result of the internalization of primary caregiver responses to environmental events.
the unconscious mind
The unconscious mind is composed of thoughts and memories that are not readily recalled but unconsciously influence behavior.
defense mechanisms
In the mid-1950s, Freud’s daughter, the psychologist Anna Freud, identified a number of defense mechanisms, which she described as thought patterns or behaviors that the ego makes use of in the face of threat to biological or psychological integrity (Townsend, 2015). These defense mechanisms protect us from excess anxiety. All people use defense mechanisms to varying degrees.
Cognitive Development Theory
Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget studied his own children to understand how humans develop cognitive abilities (i.e., the ability to think, reason, and use language). In this theory, cognitive development requires three core competencies:
Adaptation
Assimilation
Accommodation
Adaptation
Adaptation is the ability to adjust to and interact with one’s environment. To be able to adapt, one must assimilate and accommodate.
Assimilation
Assimilation is the integration of new experiences with one’s own system of knowledge.
Accommodation
Accommodation is the change in one’s system of knowledge that results from processing new information. For example, an infant is born with an innate ability to suck. Presented with the mother’s nipple, the infant is able to assimilate the nipple to the behavior of sucking. If given a bottle, the infant can learn to accommodate the artificial nipple.
According to Piaget, cognitive development occurs from birth through adolescence in a sequence of four stages (see Table 9-3). A child must complete each stage before moving to the next. The rate at which a child moves through the stages is determined both by inherited intellect and the environment. Piaget does not address cognitive development after adolescence.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor
Birth–2 yr
Learns the world through the senses
Displays curiosity
Shows intentional behavior
Begins to see that objects exist apart and separate from self
Begins to see objects separate from self
Preoperational
2–7 yr
Uses symbols and language
Sees himself as the center of the universe: egocentric
Thought based on perception rather than logic
Concrete operations
7–11 yr
Operates and reacts to the concrete: What the child perceives is considered actual.
Egocentricity diminishes, can see from others’ viewpoints
Able to use logic and reason in thinking
Able to conserve: To see that objects may change but recognizes them as the same (e.g., a tower of blocks is the same as a long fence of blocks)
Formal operations
11-adolescence
Develops the ability to think abstractly: to reason, deduce, and define concepts in a logical manner
Some individuals cannot think abstractly, even as adults.
Psychosocial Development Theory
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
hypothesized that individuals must master eight stages as they progress through life. Most people successfully move from stage to stage; however, a person can regress to earlier stages during times of stress or be forced to face tasks of later stages because of unforeseen life events (e.g., terminal illness). Failure to successfully master a stage leads to maladjustment. Erikson’s eight stages include the following:
stages
Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust (Birth to About 18 Months)
Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt (About 18 Months to 3 Years)
Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt (3 to 5 Years)
Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority (6 to 11 Years)
Stage 5: Identity Versus Role Confusion (11 to 21 Years)
Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation (21 to 40 Years)
Stage 7: Generativity Versus Stagnation (40 to 65 Years)
Stage 8: Ego Integrity Versus Despair (Over 65 Years)
Moral Development Theory: Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg (1968) studied the responses to moral dilemmas of 84 boys whose development he followed for a period of 20 years. From that data, Kohlberg hypothesized that a person’s level of moral development can be identified by analyzing the rationale he gives for action in a moral dilemma.
In this theory, moral reasoning appears to be somewhat age related, and moral development is based on one’s ability to think at progressively higher levels. Increased maturity provides some degree of higher-level thinking but does not guarantee the ability to function at the highest level.