Intrapartum Assessment and interventions ch 8 Flashcards
Intrapartum Period
The intrapartum period begins with the onset of regular uterine contractions (UCs) and lasts until the expulsion of the placenta. The process by which this normally occurs is called labor. Childbirth is the period from the conclusion of the pregnancy to the start of the infant’s extrauterine life
Labor Triggers
Generally, it is proposed that labor is triggered by both maternal and fetal factors that may be caused by an inflammatory process, a genetic component, and/or biomarkers in cervicovaginal fluid. Unfortunately, even with substantial research, there is no concrete evidence of how labor initiates or what mechanisms are triggered at the time of labor. There is some evidence that the myometrium is stimulated by prostaglandins and oxytocin (biochemical factors) and becomes active. This initiates more contractions that become synchronized and softening of the cervix, which was previously protective
Labor: Maternal Factors
Uterine muscles are stretched to the threshold point, leading to release of prostaglandins and oxytocin that stimulate contractions.
● Increased pressure on the cervix stimulates the nerve plexus, causing release of oxytocin by the maternal pituitary gland, which then stimulates contractions.
● Estrogen increases, stimulating the uterine response. ● Progesterone, which has a quieting effect on the uterus, is withdrawn, allowing estrogen to stimulate contractions.
● Oxytocin stimulates myometrial contractions. Oxytocin and prostaglandin work together to inhibit calcium binding in muscle cells, raising intracellular calcium levels and activating contractions.
● The oxytocin level surges from stretching of the cervix.
Labor:Fetal factors
● As the placenta ages, it begins to deteriorate, triggering initiation of contractions.
● Prostaglandin synthesis by the fetal membranes and the decidua stimulates contractions.
● Fetal cortisol, produced by fetal adrenal glands, rises and acts on the placenta to reduce progesterone that quiets the uterus and increases prostaglandin that stimulates the uterus to contract.
Signs of impending labor
A few weeks before labor, changes occur that indicate the woman’s body is preparing for the onset of labor. These changes are also referred to as premonitory signs of labor.
● Lightening: This refers to the descent of the fetus into the true pelvis approximately 2 weeks before term in first-time pregnancies. The woman may feel she can breathe more easily but often experiences urinary frequency at this stage from increased bladder pressure. In subsequent pregnancies, this may not occur until labor begins.
● Braxton-Hicks: These contractions are irregular UCs that do not result in cervical change and are associated with “false labor.” Braxton-Hicks contractions are usually not painful, don’t happen at regular intervals, don’t get closer together, may stop with a change in activity or position, and do not feel stronger over time. These contractions begin to coordinate the many muscle layers of the uterus to perform when true labor begins. True labor is characterized by regular uterine contractions that result in progressive dilation and effacement of the cervix and fetal descent into the pelvis
● Cervical changes. The cervix ripens, becomes soft, and may become partially effaced and begin to dilate. The woman may lose her mucous plug or have a change in discharge.
● Nesting. Some women experience a burst of energy or feel the need to put everything in order, which is sometimes referred to as nesting.
● Less commonly, some women experience a 1- to 3-pound weight loss and others experience diarrhea, nausea, or indigestion preceding labor. ● The woman may experience low backache and sacroiliac discomfort due in part to the relaxation of the pelvic joints.
● The woman may experience a brownish or blood-tinged cervical mucus discharge referred to as bloody show.
Factors affecting labor; 5 P’s
Labor is defined by UCs that bring about effacement and dilation of the cervix. Factors that have been traditionally identified as the essential components in the outcome of labor and delivery include the 5 “P’s”
● Powers (the contractions)
● Passage (the pelvis and birth canal)
● Passenger (the fetus)
● Psyche (the response of the woman)
● Position (maternal postures and physical positions to facilitate labor)
Powers
Powers refers to the involuntary UCs of labor and the voluntary pushing or bearing-down powers that combine to propel and deliver the fetus and placenta from the uterus (
myometrial and decidual oxytocin receptors fluctuate during pregnancy. By the third trimester, the myometrial receptors increase by more than 300%, while uterine sensitivity of oxytocin also increases.
Though no theory has been proven correct, studies support that pacemaker cells in the uterus send signals to other cells (Sultatos, 1997) and that the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes oxytocin to stimulate contractions
Uterine Contractions
● The uterine muscle, known as the myometrium, contracts and shortens during the first stage of labor. Synchronizing of these muscles focuses on the uterus & adnexa, partially due to the cervical dilation and lower uterine segment thinning
● The upper segment composes two-thirds of the uterus and contracts to push the fetus down.
● The lower segment composes the lower third of the uterus and the cervix and is less active, allowing the cervix to become thinner and pulled upward.
● Uterine contractions are responsible for the dilation (opening) and effacement (thinning) of the cervix in the first stage of labor.
● Uterine contractions are rhythmic and intermittent.
● Each contraction has a resting phase or uterine relaxation period that allows the woman and uterine muscle a pause for rest. This pause allows blood flow to the uterus and placenta that was temporarily reduced during the contraction phase. It is during this pause that much of the fetal exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products occurs in the placenta. With every contraction, 500 mL of blood leaves the utero–placental unit and moves back into maternal circulation thus ridding the utero-placental unit of waste and bringing in a replenished oxygen supply.
● Uterine contractions are described in the following ways (Fig. 8–2):
● Frequency: Time from beginning of one contraction to the beginning of another. It is recorded in minutes (e.g., occurring every 3 to 4 minutes). ● Duration: Time from the beginning of a contraction to the end of the contraction. It is recorded in seconds (e.g., each contraction lasts 45 to 50 seconds).
● Intensity: Strength of the contraction. It is evaluated with palpation using the fingertips on maternal abdomen and is described as:
● Mild: The uterine wall is easily indented during contraction.
● Moderate: The uterine wall is resistant to indentation during a contraction.
● Strong: The uterine wall cannot be indented during a contraction.
● There are three phases of a contraction (see Fig. 8–2):
● Increment phase: Ascending or buildup of the contraction that begins in the fundus and spreads throughout the uterus; the longest part of the contraction. ● Acme phase: Peak of intensity but the shortest part of the contraction.
● Decrement phase: Descending or relaxation of the uterine muscle.
● Contractions facilitate cervical changes (Fig. 8–3A, B, C).
● Dilation and effacement occurs during the first stage of labor when UCs push the presenting part of the fetus toward the cervix, causing it to open and thin out as the musculofibrous tissue of the cervix is drawn upwards (see Fig. 8–3B).
● Dilation is the enlargement or opening of the cervical os.
● The cervix dilates from closed (or <1 cm diameter) to 10 cm diameter (see Fig. 8–3C). ● When the cervix reaches 10 cm dilation, it is considered fully or completely dilated and can no longer be palpated on vaginal examination.
● Effacement is the shortening and thinning of the cervix (Fig. 8–3A, B, C).
● Before the onset of labor, the cervix is 2 to 3 cm long and approximately 1 cm thick (Fig. 8–3A).
● The degree of effacement is measured in percentage and goes from 0% to 100%.
● Effacement often precedes dilation in a first-time pregnancy. Effacement and dilation progression of the cervix occurs together in subsequent pregnancies.
Bearing down powers
Bearing-down powers occur once the cervix is fully dilated (10 cm), and the woman feels the urge to push; she will involuntarily bear down. The urge to push is triggered by the Ferguson reflex, activated when the presenting part stretches the pelvic floor muscles. Stretch receptors are activated, releasing oxytocin and stimulating contractions.
The bearing-down powers are enhanced when the woman contracts her abdominal muscles and pushes. Multiple studies in the last 20 years have shown significant evidence that maternal fatigue is less and the abnormal FHR tracings associated with closed glottis sustained pushing are decreased when the woman pushes, with no significant increase of the second stage of labor.Studies done in the late 1990s and early 2000s demonstrated less injury to the pelvic floor and perineal injuries with pushing.
spontaneous pushing had no adverse fetal effects, higher maternal satisfaction, and no significant change in labor duration. Interventions in the second stage of labor should be realized independently with consideration of the situation at hand. It is important to consider the duration of pushing, parity, epidural analgesia, adequacy of pushing efforts, maternal and fetal status and progress, as well as the woman’s preferences
Mother initiated spontaneous pushing
Mother-initiated, spontaneous pushing in the second stage of labor begins at the time the woman feels the urge to push. Spontaneous pushing is defined as a mother’s response to a natural urge to push or a bearing-down effort that comes and goes several times during each contraction. It does not involve timed breath holding or counting to 10. Scientific evidence supports spontaneous physiologic approaches to a second stage labor management. However, most women in the U.S. receive instructions from care providers to use prolonged Valsalva bearing-down efforts as soon as the cervix is completely dilated. Delaying bearing-down efforts during the second stage of labor until the woman feels the urge to push results in optimal use of maternal energy, has no detrimental maternal or fetal effects, and results in improved fetal oxygenation. Though most commonly used with woman who receive epidural anesthesia, laboring down is just one component of physiologic second stage labor care that can be used to achieve optimal maternal and neonatal outcomes.
Active Direct pushing
Active-directive pushing: Women historically have been put in the lithotomy position and given instructions to take a deep breath, hold it, and bear down with a closed glottis for at least 10 seconds, at least three times during one contraction as soon as they were complete, regardless of whether they felt the urge to push.
Physiologic second stage labor care(laboring down)
Physiologic second-stage labor care (laboring down): Encourage the women to wait until she feels an urge to push to initiate spontaneous bearing-down efforts. Support them in bearing down in response to natural urges. This passive descent is followed by an active urge to bear down.
Evidence based practice info
Waiting to push based on the woman’s physical and emotional readiness has been recommended for decades Having women labor upright in comfortable positions and not in the lithotomy position or on their backs has shown improved fetal oxygenation and APGAR scores.
Passage
The passage includes the bony pelvis and the soft tissues of the cervix, pelvic floor, vagina, and introitus (external opening to the vagina). Although all these anatomical areas play a role in the birth, the e maternal pelvis is the greatest determinate in the vaginal delivery of the fetus. The assessment of the size and shape of the pelvis is important. Assessment of the pelvis is performed manually through palpation with a vaginal exam by the care provider during pregnancy.
Pelvis
● Types of bony pelvis (Fig. 8–4): ● Gynecoid (most common type and found in about 50% of women)
● Android
● Anthropoid
● Platypelloid (least common type and found in about 3% of women)
● The anatomical structure of the pelvis includes the ileum, the ischium, pubis, sacrum, and coccyx (Fig. 8–5). ● The bony pelvis is divided into:
● False pelvis, which is the shallow upper section of the pelvis.
● True pelvis, which is the lower part of the pelvis and consists of three planes, the inlet, the midpelvis, and the outlet. The measurement of these three planes defines the obstetric capacity of the pelvis.
● The pelvic joints include the symphysis pubis, the right and the left sacroiliac joints, and the sacrococcygeal joints.
● The actions of the hormones estrogen and relaxin during pregnancy soften cartilage and increase elasticity of the ligaments, allowing room for the fetal head.
● Station refers to the relationship of the ischial spines to the presenting part of the fetus and assists in assessing for fetal descent during labor (Fig. 8–6). Station 0 is the narrowest diameter the fetus must pass through during a vaginal birth.
Soft tissue
● The soft tissue of the cervix effaces and dilates, allowing the descending fetus into the vagina.
● The soft tissue of the pelvic floor muscles helps the fetus in an anterior rotation as it passes through the birth canal.
● The soft tissue of the vagina expands to allow passage of the fetus.
Passenger
he passenger is the fetus. The fetus and its relationship to the passageway are the major factors in the birthing process. The relationship between the fetus and the passageway is affected by the fetal skull, fetal attitude, fetal lie, fetal presentation, fetal position, and fetal size. At the onset of labor, the position of the fetus with respect to the birth canal is critical, when a fetus is in a position other than cephalic (head first), a cesarean delivery is considered. Size of the fetus alone is less significant in the birthing process than the relationship among fetal size, position, and pelvic dimensions
Fetal Skull
fetal head usually accounts for the largest portion of the fetus to come through the birth canal.
● Bones and membranous spaces help the skull to mold during labor and birth.
● Molding is the ability of the fetal head to change shape to accommodate/fit through the maternal pelvis
fetal skull is composed of two parietal bones, two temporal bones, the frontal bone, and the occipital bone (Fig. 8–8A).
● The biparietal diameter (BPD), 9.25 cm, is the largest transverse measurement and an important indicator of head size (see Fig. 8–8B).
● The membranous space between the bones (sutures) and the fontanels (intersections of these sutures) allows the skull bones to overlap and mold to fit through the birth canal
Fetal attitude or posture
Fetal attitude or posture is the relationship of fetal parts to one another, noted by the flexion or extension of the fetal joints.
● At term, the fetus’s back becomes convex and the head flexed such that the chin is against the chest. This results in a rounded appearance with the chin flexed forward on the chest, arms crossed over the thorax, the thighs flexed on the abdomen, and the legs flexed at the knees.
● With proper fetal attitude, the head is in complete flexion in a vertex presentation and passes more easily through the true pelvis.
Fetal Lie
Fetal lie refers to the long axis (spine) of the fetus in relationship to the long axis (spine) of the woman.
● The two primary lies are longitudinal and transverse (Fig. 8–10 A&B).
● In the longitudinal lie, the long axes of the fetus and the mother are parallel (most common).
● In the transverse lie, the long axis of the fetus is perpendicular to the long axis of the mother.
● A fetus cannot be delivered vaginally in the transverse lie.
Presentation
● Cephalic (head first) (Fig. 8–11A)
● Breech (pelvis first) (Fig. 8–11B)
● Shoulder (shoulder first)
Presenting part
The presenting part is the specific fetal structure lying nearest to the cervix. It is determined by the attitude or posture of the fetus. Each presenting part has an identified denominator or reference point used to describe the fetal position in the pelvis.
● Cephalic presentations: The presenting part is the head (Fig. 8–12).
● This accounts for 95% of all births
● The degree of flexion or extension of the head and neck further classifies cephalic presentations.
● Vertex presentation indicates that the head is sharply flexed and the chin is touching the thorax. The denominator is the occiput.
● Frontum or brow presentation indicates partial extension of the neck with the brow as the presenting part. The denominator is the frontum.
● Face presentation indicates that the neck is sharply extended and the back of the head (occiput) is arching to the fetal back. The denominator is the mentum-chin.
● Breech presentations: The presenting part is the buttock and/or feet
● Complete breech: Complete flexion of the thighs and the legs extending over the anterior surfaces of the body
● Frank breech: Complete flexion of thighs and legs
● Footling breech: Extension of one or both thighs and legs so that one or both feet are presenting
● Transverse presentation: The presenting part is usually the shoulder
This usually is associated with a transverse lie.
● Compound presentation: The fetus assumes a unique posture usually with the arm or hand presenting alongside the presenting part.
Fetal position
The fetal position is the relation of the denominator or reference point to the maternal pelvis
There are six positions for each presentation: right anterior, right transverse, right posterior, left anterior, left transverse, and left posterior.
The occiput is the specific fetal structure for a cephalic presentation
The sacrum is the specific fetal structure for a breech presentation
The acromion is the specific fetal structure for a shoulder presentation
The mentum is the specific fetal structure for the face presentation
Position is designated by a three-letter abbreviation
● First letter: Designates location of presenting part to the left (L) or right (R) of the woman’s pelvis ● Second letter: Designates the specific fetal part presenting: occiput (O), sacrum (S), mentum (M), and shoulder (A) ● Third letter: Designates the relationship of the presenting fetal part to the woman’s pelvis such as anterior (A), posterior (P), or transverse (T)
Psyche
A woman’s experience and satisfaction during the labor and birthing process can be enhanced by coordination of collaborative goals between the woman and health care personnel in the plan of care. This influences her self-esteem, self-confidence, relationship to others, and general view of life. During her pregnancy, the woman should confer with her provider about pregnancy-related changes and what to expect in labor. By looking at how she handles pain, stress, anxiety, and what her preferences are, she can then make a plan of action to maintain control and autonomy when in labor. Encourage the woman to identify comforting items (such as pictures, music, visualization techniques, a favorite gown, and support people) to provide solace in the hospital environment
Factors that influence the woman’s coping mechanism include her culture, expectations, a strong support system, and type of support during labor.