Milgram (naomi) [done]

Question 1

define a dispositional hypothesis (individual hypothesis)

Answer 1

a view that explains behaviour in terms of the individual - their nature, personality, outlook, character

Question 2

what is reliability?

Answer 2

consistency of the measure/procedure where the participant goes through exactly the same experience

Question 3

what is validity?

Answer 3

how well a test actually measures what it was created to measure

Question 4

what is a situational hypothesis?

Answer 4

the environment in which you find yourself is the strongest influence on your behaviour

Question 5

what are the aims of the study?

Answer 5

• to investigate how obedient individuals would be to orders received from a person in authority, specifically, even if it would result in physical harm to another person.

Question 6

what was one theory used to explain the events of the Holocaust?

Answer 6

Germain citizens possessed some defective personal traits which made such extreme levels of obedience possible. this is a dispositional argument which suggests germans are somehow different from others. (Milgram suggested a situation explanation instead)

Question 7

Milgram told psychology students and colleagues about the procedure. what did he ask and what was predicted?

Answer 7

Milgram asked them how many participants would apply the maximum voltage shocks. those asked believed that less than 3% of participants would deliver the maximum voltage shock as they believed no one would deliver such a strong punishment

Question 8

what was the research method and design used in the study?

Answer 8

• controlled observation
• modern laboratory setting at Yale University - all variables were controlled
• no control condition, all participants underwent the same conditions

Question 9

what was the independent and dependent variables of the study?

Answer 9

there was no IV
the DV was the level of obedience in participants

Question 10

how were P’s level of obedience measured?

Answer 10

• measured through observation. this was operationalized as the maximum voltage given in response to the orders
• P’s body language and verbal comments or protests were also noted by the one-way mirror

Question 11

what were the materials used in this study?

Answer 11

simulated shock generator with 30 clearly marked voltage levels that range from 15 to 450 volts. the instrument bears verbal designations that range from “Slight shock” to “Danger: Severe shock”

Question 12

how was data collected?

Answer 12

• Quantitative data - A quantitative value is assigned to the subject’s performance based on the maximum intensity shock he is willing to administer; Projective measures and attitude scales were employed.
• Qualitative data: Learner’s responses, open-ended questions, and observer’s remarks

Question 13

describe the sample and sampling method of the experiment

Answer 13

• 40 males
• 20-50 years
• in the area of New Haven, USA
• obtained by a newspaper advertisement and direct mail solicitation.
• paid $4.50 for coming, regardless of what happened after they left they arrived
• men came from different backgrounds and occupations (unskilled workers, white collar, professionals)

Question 14

what were they told the experiment was about?

Answer 14

a study of memory and learning at Yale. the memory task involved reading pairs of words aloud to the learner and subsequently testing the learner on their recognition of the words.

Question 15

why was the location of Yale University chosen?

Answer 15

in order to make the procedure seem legitimate, an important situational factor in obedience. the experiment was dissociated from the university.

Question 16

describe the procedure conducted in the study

Answer 16

1. when participants arrived individually at the lab, they were introduced to another man whom they believed was another participant but was the stooge
2. both men were told that they would be allocated the roles of “teacher” or “learner” in an experiment about the effects of punishment on learning.
3. they drew pieces of paper from a hat to determine the role, but both papers said teacher and it was fixed so the participant would always be the teacher
4. the participant was then taken to another room, where the stooge was strapped to a chair and had electrodes attached to him by the experimenter
5. they were presented with a shock generator
6. told that “although the shocks can be extremely painful, they cause no permanent tissue damage”, and given an example shock of 45v as a demonstration
7. Ps were seated behind a wall so that they could hear but not see the stooge who was attached to the machine. the experimenter remained with the participant
8. participants were instructed in the memory task and ordered to increase the level of shock each time the learner made a mistake by 15v. The mistakes made were a pre-set plan of mistakes
9. until 300v was reached, the learner remained silent when receiving the punishment, however at 300v the learner began to pound on the wall in protest to the participant, and after, made no further noise and stopped responding to the memory task altogether.
10. when the participants asked the experimenter what they should do, the experimenter insisted that they continue. when the P protested this, the experimenter continued to give them verbal prods
11. after the procedure was complete, each participant was interviewed and had the deception explained. they were asked to estimate how painful they thought the last shock was on a scale of 0-14, from not painful to extremely painful.
12. they were given the chance to meet the learner again in order to reassure them that they were not injured and to restore the P’s well-being.

Question 17

describe the shock generator

Answer 17

• 30 lever switches set in a horizontal line, 15v to 430v
• 15 v increment each switch, going from left to right
• verbal designations are indicated for groups of 4 switches. from left to right: slight shock, moderate shock, strong shock, very strong shock (two switches after this last one have simply marked XXX for 375-450v)
• when the switch is depressed, a pilot light corresponding to each switch is illuminated in bright red, a buzzing is heard, an electric blue light labeled “electric energizer” flashes, the voltage meter swings to the right, and various relay-clicked are sound
• the upper left-hand corner of the generator is labeled “shock generator” and the manufacturer name

Question 18

describe the confederates in the study

Answer 18

• the role of the experimenter was played by a 31-year-old high school teacher of biology. his manner was impassive and his appearance somewhat stern. he was dressed in a gray technician’s coat.
• the role of the victim was played by a 47-year-old accountant of irish-american descent, who most observers found mild-mannered and likable

Question 19

describe the sample shock given to participants and why it was given

Answer 19

• a sample shock was given on the shock generator prior to beginning the memory test
• 45v, the third lever
• has its source in a 45v battery wired into. the generator, further convincing the subjects of the authenticity

Question 20

what were the 4 prods of the study?

Answer 20

said in sequence:
1. Please continue/please go on
2. the experiment requires that you continue
3. it is absolutely essential that you continue
4. you have no other choice, you must go on

Question 21

what was concluded in the study?

Answer 21

• the study supports the idea of a situational explanation for obedience.
• individuals are much more obedient to authority than we might reasonably expect
• despite high levels of obedience, people find the experience of carrying out destructive acts under the order of authority figures triggers feelings of stress. (there is a conflict between two important social phenomena: the need to obey this authority and the need to avoid harming other people)

Question 22

what are some explanations for the high amount of obedience observed in the situation?

Answer 22

1. the experiment is sponsored by and takes place on the grounds of Yale University, which is reputable, meaning there is a sense of perceived legitimacy.
2. the subject construes the study as significant and meaningful as it aims to attain a worthy purpose of advancement of knowledge about learning and memory.
3. subjects perceive that the victim has voluntarily submitted to the authority system of the experiment, therefore has consented and has incurred an obligation toward the experiment to some degree.
4. the subject has also entered the experiment voluntarily and perceives himself under obligation to aid the experimenter. to disrupt the experiment is a repudiation of this initial promise of aid.
5. the role of teacher and student was selected purely by chance and is of fair means.
6. the subjects are assured that the shocks administered to the subjects are ‘painful but not dangerous
7. the victim continues to provide answers and may construe this as a sign the victim is still willing to play the game. it is only at shock level 20 does the victim repudiate the rules completely

Question 23

explain the nature of the conflicts within the study

Answer 23

1. the subject must respond to the competing demands of two persons: the experimenter and the victim. the conflict must be resolved by meeting the demand of one or the other, which are mutually exclusive.
2. the experimenter carries a weight of scientific authority, while the victim springs from his personal experience of pain and suffering.
3. little time for reflection was given
4. there is a conflict between two important social phenomena: the need to obey this authority and the need to avoid harming other people

Question 24

what are the strengths of the study?

Answer 24

• it is high in reliability. For example, the procedure was the same for all participants, including the drawing lots for teacher or learner and the prods used. Also, choice of who was to be the teacher and learner was done by taking a slip of paper from a hat, however the participant was always the teacher. Therefore, the standardized procedure eases the process of replication for future study in order to produce consistent results, hence this study is high in reliability.
• it is high in validity. For example, an electric shock generator was designed, where a sample shock of 45 volts was given to the teacher before starting the experiment. Further instructions were given to confirm the authenticity of the apparatus. Furthermore, the sample was also carefully selected by Milgram to ensure a range of ages and backgrounds. Since the electric shock generator was well-designed, this helps to ensure that participants were convinced that the study was real and that their actions actually mattered. Milgram could be confident that it was the situation that participants were placed in that caused the obedience levels, therefore this study is high in validity.
• the study is useful. The set up of this study which included deception and ensuring participants believed the false aim allowed researchers to gather important findings such as 65% of the participants went to the end (450v) under the persuasion of an authority figure. This clearly shows that people will follow the orders of authority figures so if an act of terrorism occurs it will be useful for the police to find the ‘authority figure’ behind it to stop others committing these terrible acts

Question 25

what are some weaknesses of the study?

Answer 25

• Low on ecological validity. For example, the word-pair task required the participant (in the role of teacher) read out word pairs to the stooge (in the role of learner) on his recognition of which word paired together. The teacher was asked to give an electric shock to teach the learner to do better at a word-pair task if the learner got the answer wrong. The setting is not normal to everyday life. Sitting in a laboratory in front of a shock generator having to shock somebody who gets a word-pair wrong is not an everyday setting that people find themselves in. Therefore, the study lacks ecological validity.
• ethical issue of deception. For example, participants were told they were participating in a study on ‘learning and memory’. Participants were also made to believe that the electric shocks they were administering to Mr Wallace were real. Participants in this study were deceived about the actual aim of the study and were also deliberately misled about the electric shocks they were administering. Therefore, researchers in this study did not conform to the ethical guideline of deception.
• ethical issue of the right to withdraw. For example, the use of prods such as ‘the experiment requires that you continue’ by the “experimenter” created the illusion that the participants in this study were denied the right to withdraw. These prods implied no other options but to continue, that could have pressured participants to remain despite being being uncomfortable. Therefore, the ethical guideline for rights to withdraw was breached in this study.

Question 26

what were the quantitative results of the study?

Answer 26

• most participants were convinced that all aspects of the situation were real.
• the mean estimate of the pain of the 450v shock was 13.42 out of a maximum of 14, meaning Ps were fully aware that they were causing serious pain
• the mean voltage given by participants was 368V. All participants gave at least 300v and 65% gave the maximum 450V shock, contrasting with the 1.2% (average) obedience rate estimated.
• 5 gave intense shocks, 26 reached the level of XXX

Question 27

what were the qualitative results of the study?

Answer 27

• revealed that participants showed signs of tension, and nervousness in participants, which increased with each shock.
• sweating, shaking, groaning
• 14/40 nervous laughter or smiling
• 3 P went into a violent seizure due to high levels of stress experienced.

comments:
- “I don’t think I can go on with this…I don’t think this is very humane”
- “I’m gonna chicken out…I can’t do that to a man, I’ll hurt his heart.”

• after the procedure, Ps showed visible signs of relief, wiped their faces, sighed, and shook their heads.
• a small minority of Ps did not show elevated levels of stress and appeared calm during the procedure

Question 28

explain the situational and individual explanations in the study

Answer 28

Individual and Situational Explanation
Study shows that the majority of people will be destructively obedient if they felt that the authoritative figure is legitimate. However, some individuals are more resistant to authority than others.