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Geography - Edexcel > Migration, Identity and Sovereignty > Flashcards

Migration, Identity and Sovereignty Flashcards

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1
Q

8.1b - What is the migration policy in Singapore?

A
  • Net migration rate of 4.26 migrants/1000 people
  • Criteria of permanent residence: be 21+, good character and financially independent
  • Policy since 1970s ensured that low skilled workers return to source country
  • Easier for high skilled workers to gain citizenship
  • Work permit system, dependency ceiling and foreign worker levy (management of low skilled)
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2
Q

8.1b - What is the migration policy like in Japan?

A
  • Net migration rate 0.75 migrants/1000 people
  • Categories include special permanent resident status, limited duration employment visa, academic research visas
  • Main policies include the 1952 immigration and control act, policy tightened in 1990, 70s and 80s - migrants largely excluded from social privileges eg public housing
  • 1990 act - permits work related visas and family related categories eg through marriage
  • pay to go scheme: pay to leave as a result of the financial crash (2008)
  • immigration policy moved to national gov to make re-entry/residency easier
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3
Q

8.1b - What is the migration policy in Australia?

A
  • Net migration rate of 7.49 migrants/1000 people
  • Immigration restriction act 1901 restricted non white migration
  • Post WWII - Australian gov believed they had to ‘populate or perish’ and began to encourage migration
  • assisted passage migration scheme targeting commonwealth citizens with no skills restrictions launched
  • current policy: skilled occupation visas - working visa, most commonly granted to high skill workers, student visa, family visa and working holiday visas
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4
Q

8.1c - What impact has the environment had on migration?

A
  • Increasing due to severity/frequency of natural hazards/risk of flooding
  • Predicted to cause the largest refugee crisis eg tens of millions
  • 2006-2011 - successive droughts, 1.5mil people migrated to Syria with no reliable access to food, water or jobs
  • Likely to cause challenges in Europe as demand for food, water ad jobs increases
  • Climate change has been referred to as a ‘trigger’
  • J - in long term can be seen as an ‘existential threat to civilisation’ - short term can be seen as requiring a new response from humanity (Sir David King) - unpredictable with many uncertain factors so hard to measure impact, both HICs and LICs equally affected
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5
Q

8.1c - What impact has economic events had on migration?

A
  • Financial crisis in 2008 led to an overall decrease in migration
  • Immigrants to 24 OECD countries fell by 7% (2009)
  • 36% drop in free migration in the EU
  • Seasonal migration dropped by 13%
  • Unemployment and economic decline affecting immigrants more significantly
  • Growing economies eg India and China has led to increased economic migration - Chinese migrants were the number one migrants to OECD countries (9% of total pop)
  • Disproportionate effect on migrants causing unemployment and tensions between insiders and outsiders
  • However report undertaken in 2011 shows migration has continued to increase with unemployment decreasing as the economy slowly recovers suggesting that is had a relatively short term impact
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6
Q

8.1c - How has political events had an impact on migration?

A
  • 2017 - number of Syrian refugees was over 5m according to the UN
  • Concerns that migration fuel for far right politicians and groups during elections eg in France and Germany as policies to oppose refugees and asylum seekers which has occurred
  • Political tensions caused increased rates of migration
  • Tensions between borders - Turkey - more than 5mil refugees situated - creation of informal camps
  • Lebanon - 1mil refugees according to UN but gov state that number higher
  • J - rate of migration slow if war comes to an end and many Syrians likely to return to rebuild lives (Ukraine war caused a resurgence)
  • tensions between bordering countries = cause anti-migration policy to be popularised
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7
Q

8.3a - What factors affect the rate of assimilation?

A
  • Citizenship
  • Education
  • Type of employment
  • Earnings/money
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8
Q

8.3a - What is Fractionalisation?

A

Fractionalisation - measures the compute the probability that two randomly drawn individuals are not from the same ethnic, linguistic or religious group.

- Cultural diversity varies considerably from country to country 
- African countries tend to be very ethnically fractionalised 
- Europe and Japan tend to be not very ethnically fractionalised
    - Middle East and South America contains partially ethically fractionalised
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9
Q

8.3a - What are the different attitudes towards intergration of migrants?

A
  • Inclusionary - making it possible for immigrants to become citizens with full rights while maintaining their cultural identities - Australia, Canada, New Zealand and USA
    • Multicultural - where for example, programmes have been designed to provide the immigrant pupils the option to complete school education in their mother tongue - Lithuania, UK and Latvia
      Netherlands moving from multicultural to inclusionary
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10
Q

8.3a - Why might assimilation be considered successful in the UK?

A
  • There is no evidence that Muslims are less likely to think of themselves as British than other groups.
  • Among those who are born in Britain, over 90% of all groups of whatever religion or ethnicity think of themselves as British.
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11
Q

8.3a - What evidence is there that Turks have been unsuccessfully integrated in Germany? What factors might have played a part?

A
  • Turks live a in a parallel world to the rest of society - formed their own communities separate to the rest of society
    • 50% of Germans think there are too many migrants
    • 2/3s of immigrant children still can’t read adequately at the end of their fourth year in school
    • 30% of Turkish immigrants and their children don’t have a school leaving certificate
    • Many who came decades ago didnt want to become part of German society - wanting to earn money and return home after a few years
    • Not many speak German - for 30, 40 years the Turks weren’t offered enough in terms of education
      Forced to pick between the nationalities
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12
Q

8.4a - What is a state?

A

A territory over which no other country holds sovereignty

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13
Q

8.4a - What is a nation?

A
  • a population united by language, ethnicity, culture or a shared history
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14
Q

8.4a - What is a Nation State?

A

A country where a distinct cultural or ethic group (a ‘nation’ or ‘people’) inhabit a territory and have formed a state (often a sovereign state) that they predominantly govern

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15
Q

8.4a - What is the Peace of Westphalia, 1648?

A

Rule that you aren’t allowed to interfere in one another’s countires
- Westphalian sovereignty is a principle in international law that each state has exclusive sovereignty

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16
Q

8.4a - Why does Iceland have such little diversity?

A
  • Isolated
  • Sparsely populated
  • Language unchanged 1000+ years
  • 74% of the population is Lutheran
  • Laws to protect heritage and cultural identity
  • 94% of Iceland is either Norse or Celtic
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17
Q

8.4a - Why is Singapore so fractionalised?

A
  • 76.8% Chinese
  • Past demographic growth
  • Physcial and political geography
  • Economic contribution of migrants
  • ‘aim is integration not assimilation’ - Singapore President
  • Founded in 1819 - polyglot and multi-ethnic
  • No one culture for migrants to assimilate into
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18
Q

8.4b - How can national borders occur/come into place?

A
  • Physical geo
  • Historical developments
  • Colonialism - might not take account of different ethnic or religious groups
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19
Q

8.4b - Why is the border between India and Pakistan contested?

A

Map of the world is in flux/has been changing

- India-Pakistan border created in 1847 - partition by the British - colonial border

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20
Q

8.4b - What is the Canada-US border an example of?

A

Physcial border
- divided by Niagara river - tends to be more straight forward
J- Rio grand moves around - can cause disputes

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21
Q

8.4b - What was the Treaty of Berlin in 1880 an example of?

A
  • Colonial/historical power
  • Africa ‘divided’ among European powers
  • States created without a Nation
  • Caused many fights - Tutsis/Hutus - divided by the Belgium
  • up to 1 mil deahts in a period of 100 days
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22
Q

8.4b - Why has Israel caused tensions in the Middle East and between ethnic groups?

A
  • 29th Nov 1947 - General Assembly recommended the adoption and implementation of the Plan of Partition with EU - would be am Arab and Jewish state - Jerusalem left out
  • 4th May 1948 Israel created - following day Arab Israeli war begins - 700,000 Palestinian are expelled or flee
  • Jew around the world encourage to populated new Jewish state - 6mil in 2020
  • About 70% of UN member countries recognise the State of Palestine (138/193 Un members)
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23
Q

8.4c - Why is Taiwan’s status under threat from China and how could this lead to future global conflict?

A
  • China wants Taiwan to re-join the country again
  • China sees Taiwan as a breakaway state whereas Taiwan sees itself as an independent country
  • Threatens Taiwan’s independence - have not ruled out force as a way to gain Taiwan joining
  • America intends to back up Taiwan - further tension
  • Chinese takeover could give Beijing some control over one of the world’s most important industries
  • China having more influence and power over certain industries
24
Q

8.4c - What other contested borders are there?

A
  • Greece and Turkey are in dispute over the Aegean Sea - continue to discuss to resolve territorial dispute - conflict has large effects on Greek-Turkish relations since 1970s - Twice led to crises coming close to outbreak of military hostilities in 1987 and in early 1996
  • Morocco-controlled Western Sahara - 1975 Western Sahara war - indigenous Sahrawi national liberation movement gained control of portion of territory from Morocco - proclaiming it the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic - Violent conflict continued until the ceasefire in 1991 - prompts migration away from war
25
Q

8.7a - When was the UN established and what is it about?

A

The UN was established in 1945 with the signatory of 50 countries.
- Purpose of preventing the outbreak of war and averting a world war
- Many parts to it - Economics, Social Policy, Human Rights, Culture
- Security Council - 5 permanent members - UK/Britain, USA, France, China, Russia
- General Assembly - resolutions to make policy for the world
- Responsible for eradicating polio in Africa, dealing with problems of debt or problems of other diseases spreading
- Very important in making sure that rights are observed
HQ based in New York

26
Q

8.7a - What is a veto and what are some examples of countries exercising them?

A

Vetoes - a constitutional right to reject a decision or proposal made by the other council members
Russia exercises their veto right the most with 118 vetoes with the US second with 82 vetoes
Last time UK vetoed something was in 1989 - to do with Panama
Recent Un resolutions that have ben vetoed are:
- 13 Dec 2021 - Maintenance of international peace and security (climate change) - vetoed by Russia
- 31 August 2020 - Threats to international peace and security caused by terrorist attacks - US
- 10 July 2020 - Humanitarian access to Syria (improve and sustain assistance to Syria) - China and Russia
- 7 July 2020 - Humanitarian access to Syria - China and Russia
- 20 Dec 2019 - Humanitarian access to Syria (via borders with Iraq and Turkey) - China and Russia

27
Q

8.7a - how successful are UN sanctions?

A

On occasion approved the use of economic sanctions. Have agreed to restrict trade or cultural exchanges with a particular country in the hope that it will bring about a change in that government’s domestic or foregin policy. Under UN sanctions pressure, the Libyan government renounced its weapons of mass destruction programme

28
Q

8.7a - How successful are UN troops?

A

UN troops are drawn from the armed forces of many different member states, including the UK, Germany, India and China. Their roles vary from conflict prevention to peace enforcement in situations that actual fighting has been taking place

29
Q

8.7a - How successful are war crime trials in the UN?

A

A permanent war court was established in The Hauge in 1988. In 2008, proceedings began against Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic who was accused of genocide during the siege of Sarajevo. He was finally convicted in March 2016 and sentenced to 40 years. The slow progress reflects the difficulty of enforcing aspects of international law. More worryingly, many war criminals continue to evade capture

30
Q

8.7a - How successful is healthcare and shelter for refugees provided by the UN?

A

The UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the WHO provide who have been affected by conflict, including the establishment of camps for internally displaced people (IDPs). Although this does not tackle the cause of conflict, the UN’s presence helps to protect vulnerable people from further humans rights abuses

31
Q

8.8a - What organisations have been keeping ‘The Washington Consensus’ going?

A
  • IMF
  • WTO
  • WB
32
Q

8.8a - What is the IMF and how is it important in maintaining the dominance of ‘western capitalism’?

A

Ensures global financial stability, for example by making loans to help stabilise national currencies
IMF - based in Washington DC
- 61% of votes held by 14 countries
- Always headed by a European
- Hardly democratic
Promotes policies which favour US and Europe for example ‘Structural Adjustments’ in return for getting loans from World Bank or IMF

33
Q

8.8a - What is the WB and how is it important in maintaining the dominance of ‘western capitalism’?

A

Finances global development
- based in Washington DC
- 50% voting right from 9 countries
- Promotes policies which favour US and Europe
A reputation for financing projects which were wasteful, corrupt, environmentally damaging and burden poor countires with debt

34
Q

8.8a - What is the WTO and how is it important in maintaining the dominance of ‘western capitalism’?

A

Promotes global trade by reducing trade barriers
- based in Switzerland
- Regulates world trade, promoting free trade which tends to favour US and Europe
- Decision making by ‘mutual agreement’, but US and Europe most influential
Has helped create an explosion in global trade

34
Q

8.8b- What are structural adjustments?

A

A set of demands a country must adhere to to secure a loan, typical demands include:

  • Rise price of public services
  • Eliminate food subsidies
  • Lower government spending
  • Liberalization of markets
  • Privatization of state-owned enterprises
  • Restructuring foreign debts
35
Q

8.8b - Case study: SAPs in Malawi - central east Africa

A
  • Land-locked country - trade made harder
    • Colonised by the British
    • Heavily influenced by the Scottish missionary society
    • Applied for assistance in 2001 to the WB and IMF
    • Strategic grain reserve - sheds full of food - fear it reduces competition and efficiency
    • 80,000 people died of starvation in 2002 after the SAP requirement was put in place - getting rid of the reserves
    • In a famine year 205 of the national budget spent on servicing debt - more than it spent on health, education and agriculture combined
      Without debt cancelation Malawi is doomed
36
Q

8.8b - What is the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative?

A

Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative - An initiative from world bank and IMF launched in 1996 to provide debt relief to the world’s most highly indebted poor countries and involve the country undergoing structural adjustment

  • Since 1996 the IMF and World Bank have approved $35 billion of HIPC debt relief
  • Very poor and very highly indebted - spend a lot on debt
  • Quite a lot of countires in sub-Saharan Africa + Bolivia
  • Debt to revenue ratio exceed 280% for debt to be fully wiped
37
Q

8.8b - What is a judgement of HIPC?

A

Judgement:
HIPC criticisms - IMF and the WB don’t cancel any debt until the six year completion point, leaving countries under the burden of their debt payments while they struggle to institute SAP’s
SAPs may undermine poverty-reduction efforts. For example, privatisation of utilities can raise the costs of services beyond the citizens’ ability to pay

38
Q

8.8b - What is a HIPC success story?

A

Uganda: HIPC success
In 2000, Uganda’s debt worth $1.9 bn was cancelled. Since then:
GDP has risen from $4.3bn to $27bn
% access to clean water has risen from 44% to 79%
% literacy rate has risen from 56% to 78%
Income from exports spent on repayments has shrunk from 81% to 2%

39
Q

8.8c - What evidence is there that IGOs are universal?

A

IGOs are universal:
IMF membership - 188 members
WTO membership - 164 members, 23 observers
WB membership - 193 members

40
Q

8.8c - What are some judgments against IGOs?

A

Can be bypassed through countries such as China who have offered investment with no strings attached
Can be bypassed through a regional trade bloc
Membership of trading blocs is becoming more important than being in an IGO

41
Q

8.8b - What is an example of a successful trade bloc?

A

NAFTA - Canada, USA, Mexico
Saw a dramatic change with the freeing up of borders/trade
Renegotiated into USMCA
- Regional trade increased to $1.1tril in 2016 from £290bil in 1993
- Cross-border investment increased to $100bil

42
Q

8.8c - In what case can there be seen a movement to closer political unity?

A

Members of the EU benefit from freedom of movement across the continent
Centre for Economic and Business research suggested 3.1mil British jobs were linked to the UK’s exports to the EU
CBI estimates that the net benefit of EU membership is with 4.55 of GDP to the UK

43
Q

8.8c - How can the EU be critised?

A
  • Brexit
    EU institutions dilute UK sovereignty
    The UK is not in control of migrant numbers
    The UK is not free to make bi-lateral trade agreements with non-EU countries
44
Q

8.9a - What is CITES?

A

CITES - Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora - goal to protect endangered species - Started in 1975

45
Q

8.9a - What are the benefits and negatives of CITES?

A

Benefits:
Managed to protect 35000 species
Research done into the extent to which species are endangered

Negatives
Underfunded
Focused on trade 
Only 51 countries ratified out of 184 who signed
Trade increased to $300 billion
46
Q

8.9a - What is the Montreal Protocol?

A

Montreal Protocol - designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances responsible for ozone depletion - agreed on 1987

47
Q

8.9a - What are the benefits and negatives of the Montreal Protocol?

A 
Benefits:
Easy alternative for CFCs 
Focused on one thing so easy to achieve
Reduced substances specifically CFC’s 
Ozone hole reducing 
Prevents over 280 mil cases of skin cancer  + 1.5 mil deaths from skin cancer 
Ratified by 197 parties

Negatives:
HCFCs have increased as a substitute to CFCs
HCFC’s thought to contribute to anthropogenic global warming

48
Q

8.9b - What is the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea?

A

UN Convention on the Law of the Sea - governs areas of the sea that is not attached to a country

49
Q

8.9b - What are the benefits and negatives of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea?

A

Benefits:
Their presence and hanging over threat stops some things from happening

Negatives:
Vague rules
Hard to maintain- large seas are difficult to police
No clear authority - weak
Set out guidelines but doesn’t enforce them
Underfunded

50
Q

8.9b - What are the benefits and negatives of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea?

A

Benefits:
Their presence and hanging over threat stops some things from happening

Negatives:
Vague rules
Hard to maintain- large seas are difficult to police
No clear authority - weak
Set out guidelines but doesn’t enforce them
Underfunded

51
Q

8.9b - What is the Water Convention, Helsinki?

A

Water Convention, Helsinki - ensures countries on a trans boundary source have equal access to the water without exploiting it - created in 1992

52
Q

8.9b - What are the benefits and negatives of the Water Convention?

A

Benefits:
Reasonable done in Europe
Danube - well managed river

Negatives:
Not well done in the rest of the world specifically Asian
Intervention upstream disturbs the water flow downstream

53
Q

8.9b - What is the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment?

A

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment - assesses the human impacts on biodiversity loss - started in 2001

54
Q

8.9b - What are the benefits and negatives of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment?

A

Benefits:
Many agree to its contents

Negatives:
Doesn’t have any power 
Not equal in the places they research 
Outdated 
IPCC taken over with more up-to-date knowledge
55
Q

8.9c - What is the Antarctic Treaty System?

A
  • stops certain things happening in the Antarctic
  • promotes science and peace
  • Formed in 1959
56
Q

8.9c - What are the benefits and negatives of the Antarctic Treaty System?

A 
Benefits:
Short and easy to follow ‘
Easy to amend - keeps everyone happy
Allows others to do research if not signed
Antarctic has not been trashed 
No data no fish 
Easy to protect

Negatives:
Countries only to the treaty - tourists can do whatever they want
60000 tourists completely unregarded
Treaty invalid if ice melts
If ice melts it will make it easier to work and will attract more to drill for resources

Geography - Edexcel (9 decks)

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