Midterm Study Questions Flashcards
Why do we have both Neurological and Psychiatric categories? Why not just one category?
Because the way psychology developed without the focus on the brain.
Also we can’t yet trace all the psychiatric disorders to brain yet. The two do potentially could be combined in the future but it would require convincing people who were not taught to think of them as the same.
What is NeuroSky?
A tool that measures brain waves from outside the head. It can be used to play games or as a tool for psychological health.
What types of backgrounds do individuals come from that work in the field of biopsychology? What is the advantage of this variety?
Biological psychology is a field that includes many players who come from quite different backgrounds: psychologists, biologists, physiologists, engineers, neurologists, psychiatrists, and many others.
What are the five viewpoints for the exploration of the biology of behaviour? Be prepared to give an example of how these can be applied to the study of a behavioural question.
In our pursuit to understand the biological bases of behavior, we use several different perspectives. Because each one yields information that complements the others, the combination of perspectives is especially powerful. The five major perspectives are:
- Describe behaviour
- Evolution of behaviour
- Development of behaviour over the lifespan
- Biological mechanisms of behaviour
- Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders
Be familiar with the concepts in Box 1.1
We Are All Alike, and We Are All Different
We Are All Alike, and We Are All Different
Each person has some characteristics shared by…
- All animals use DNA to store genetic information.
- All vertebrates have a backbone and spinal cord
- All mammals suckle their young.
- All primates have a hand with an opposable thumb and a relatively large, complex brain.
- All humans use symbolic language to communicate with each other.
- Some people like to eat beets (no one knows why).
- No two people, even identical twins, are alike in each and every way, as individual experiences leave their unique stamp on every brain.
What is ontogeny? Why is it important to study the nervous systems control of behaviour over the lifespan? Do you think it would be appropriate to study diseases of aging in a child/young animal? Why or why not?
The process by which an individual changes in the course of its lifetime—that is, grows up and grows old.
Observing the way in which a particular behavior changes during ontogeny may give us clues to its functions and mechanisms. For example, we know that learning ability in monkeys increases over several years of development. Therefore, we can speculate that prolonged maturation of brain circuits is required for complex learning tasks.
In some case it would be appropriate to study diseases of aging in a child/young animal if there are similar functions that could be observed that would give insight in to the location or nature of the human disorder. It would not give any concrete answers but point researchers a direction to continue studies in.
How can the research that Biopsychologist do in non-human animals apply to the study of human problems?
Most study in animals are not directly transpherable to human problems but the similar structures and elements can be studied to give clues on how they might work in humans and point researchers a direction to continue research in.
Please come up with an example of each of the three main approaches to the study of the neuroscience of behaviour (not the ones in the textbook)
- Manipulating the body to effect behavior.
Somatic intervention – administer a drug
Behavior affected – working memory - Experience affects the body and brain.
Behavior intervention – expose to threat of harm
Somatic effects - measure levels of neurotransmitters - Body and behavioral measures covary
Somatic variables – activation in brain when looking at art
Behavior variables – art training and ability
What is neuroplasticity? How does the environment affect our nervous systems?
The ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or the environment.
Experience can affect the number or size of neurons, or the number or size of connections between neurons.
How are social psychology and biopsychology related?
Cooke et al. (2000) took young rats, just weaned from their mother, and either raised each male in a cage alone or raised them with other males to play with. Examination of these animals as adults found only one brain difference between the groups: a region of the brain known to process odors was smaller in the isolated males than in the males raised with playmates (FIGURE 1.4). Was it the lack of play (N. S. Gordon et al., 2003), the lack of odors to investigate, or the stress of isolation that made the region smaller? Whatever the mechanism, social experience affects this brain structure.
Here’s an example of how social influences can affect the human brain. When people were asked to put a hand into moderately hot water (47°C), part of the brain became active, presumably because of the discomfort involved (Rainville et al., 1997). But subjects who were led to believe the water would be very hot had a more activated brain than did subjects led to believe the discomfort would be minimal (FIGURE 1.5), even though the water was the same temperature for all subjects. The socially induced psychological expectation affected the magnitude of the brain response, even though the physical stimulus was exactly the same.
In most cases, biological and social factors continually interact and affect each other in an ongoing series of events as behavior unfolds.
What are some of the common levels of analysis that are used to study nervous system function?
The scope of experimental approaches. A scientist may try to understand behavior by monitoring molecules, nerve cells, brain regions, or social environments, or some combination of these levels of analysis.
Levels • Social level • Organ level • Neural system level • Brain region level • Circuit level • Cellular level • Synaptic level • Molecular level
If I was to design a new drug what types of information could I gain by studying behaviour at the various levels of analysis that are listed in the textbook (1.5)?
New Depression Medication
Social level – effect on mood, attention, motivation
Organ level – side effects in the digestive system
Neural system level – the changes in the overall activation patterns in the brain
Brain region level – the changes in the brain regions associated with depression
Circuit level – changes in the circuits in the areas of the brain that are most affected by the drug
Cellular level – transmission speed changes in a single neuron
Synaptic level – the changes in the levels of neurotransmitters released or reabsorbed
Molecular level – changes in sodium levels
What is consciousness – what do we know about the brains control of it? Will we ever understand how the brain generates it?
experience.
• Consciousness matters; it permits us to do certain important things, like planning and mentally “simulating” what might happen in the future.
• Consciousness is bound up somehow with the activity of the brain.
• We are not aware of all of our brain’s activities. Some brain activity, and therefore some of our behavior, is unconscious.
• The deepest parts of our brain are important for arousal.
• The topmost parts of the brain are responsible for whatever we experience from moment to moment.
Be able to label the parts of a neuron on a diagram. Also make sure you can define what each part does.
The basic unit of the nervous system, each composed of a cell body, receptive extension(s) (dendrites), and a transmitting extension (axon).
Dendrite - One of the extensions of the cell body that are the receptive surfaces of the neuron.
Cell body or soma - The region of a neuron that is defined by the presence of the cell nucleus. Also contains mitochondrion and ribosomes.
Axon hillock A cone-shaped area from which the axon originates out of the cell body. Functionally, the integration zone of the neuron.
Axon- A single extension from the nerve cell that carries nerve impulses from the cell body to other neurons.
The axon has two quite different functions: rapid transmission of electrical signals along the outside of the axon, and the much slower transportation of substances inside the axon, to and from the axon terminals.
Axon terminal - Also called synaptic bouton. The end of an axon or axon collateral, which forms a synapse on a neuron or other target cell.
What is the input, integration, conduction and output zone of a neuron?
Input zone
- The part of a neuron that receives information, from other neurons or from specialized sensory structures. Usually corresponds to the cell’s dendrites.
Integration zone
- The part of the neuron that initiates nerve electrical activity. Usually corresponds to the neuron’s axon hillock.
Conduction zone
- The part of the neuron over which the nerve’s electrical signal may be actively propagated. Usually corresponds to the cell’s axon.
Output zone
- The part of a neuron, usually corresponding to the axon terminals, at which the cell sends information to another cell.
How long can neurons be?
In a griaf – 15 feet
In a whale - 30 feet
In a human – several feet
What are glia cells?
Glial cells support neuronal activity
There are 4 types that we need to know for the class.
Glial cells respond to injury by edema, or swelling, and are also susceptible to tumors.
What does glia mean?
Glue
Why would neurons come in different shapes and sizes?
Neurons are remarkably diverse in shape, their forms reflecting their highly specialized functions.
What is/are the difference(s) between a multipolar, bipolar and unipolar neuron? What does there morphology suggest about their function?
Multipolar neuron - A nerve cell that has many dendrites and a single axon. They are the most common type of neuron.
Bipolar neuron - A nerve cell that has a single dendrite at one end and a single axon at the other end. This type of neuron is especially common in sensory systems, such as vision.
Unipolar neuron -Also called monopolar neuron. A nerve cell with a single branch that leaves the cell body and then extends in two directions; one end is the receptive pole, the other end the output zone. Such cells transmit touch infor-mation from the body into the spinal cord.
What is the difference between a motor, sensory and interneuron?
Motoneuron Also called motor neuron. A nerve cell that transmits motor messages, stimulating a muscle or gland.
Sensory neuron A neuron that is directly affected by changes in the environment, such as light, odor, or touch.
Interneuron A neuron that is neither a sensory neuron nor a motoneuron; it receives input from and sends output to other neurons. Shortest of the three.
What is the difference between an oligodendrocyte and Schwann cell?
Oligodendrocyte - A type of glial cell that forms myelin in the central nervous system.
Schwann cell- The glial cell that forms myelin in the peripheral nervous system.
Are all axons myelinated?
No
Many thin, short axons lack myelin but still are surrounded by oligodendrocytes or Schwann cells, which segregate the unmyelinated axons
What is the node of Ranvier? Why is it important?
Node of Ranvier - A gap between successive segments of the myelin sheath where the axon membrane is exposed.
It is important because it serves to facilitate the rapid conduction of nerve impulses
What are the roles of astrocytes and microglia?
Glial Cells
Astrocyte - A star-shaped glial cell with numerous processes (extensions) that run in all directions.
Microglial cells Also called microglia. Extremely small glial cells that remove cellular debris from injured or dead cells.
What is a dendritic spine/synapse??
Synapse - The tiny gap between neurons where information is passed from one to the other.
Studding the dendrites of many neurons are outgrowths called dendritic spines that, by effectively increasing the surface area of the dendrites, allow for extra synaptic contacts. Both the number and structure of dendritic spines may be rapidly altered by experience, such as training or exposure to sensory stimuli
How does information go from one neuron to another via the synapse
Information is transmitted from the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron to the receptive surface of the postsynaptic neuron through the synaptic cleft. The synaptic cleft is the gap of about 20–40 nanometers (nm) that separates the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes.
Presynaptic axon terminals contain numerous tiny spheres, called synaptic vesicles, each 30–140 nm in diameter. Each vesicle contains a specialized chemical substance, a neurotransmitter, which the neuron uses to communicate with postsynaptic neurons. In response to electrical activity in the axon, these vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane, releasing molecules of neurotransmitter into the cleft. After crossing the cleft, the released neurotransmitter interacts with postsynaptic receptors: specialized protein molecules that capture and react to molecules of the neurotransmitter.
What is/are the difference(s) between the central and peripheral nervous systems?
a natural subdivision into a peripheral nervous system (all nervous system parts that are outside the bony skull and spinal column) and a central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal cord
What is/are the general functions of the cranial nerves? be familiar with what they are – for example if I asked you for five areas of the face that the cranial nerves process neural information for you should be able to answer this
Cranial nerves serve the sensory and motor systems of the head and neck.
Three cranial nerves are exclusively sensory pathways to the brain: the olfactory, the optic and the nerve is concerned with hearing and balance.
Five nerves are exclusively motor pathways from the brain: three nerve pathways innervate muscles to move the eye; one pathway controls neck muscles; and one controls the tongue.
The remaining cranial nerves have both sensory and motor functions. One serves facial sensation and it controls chewing movements through other axons. Another set of nerves control facial muscles and receive taste sensation, there are nerves that receive sensation from the throat and control the muscles there. And the vagus (X) nerve extends far from the head, running to the heart, liver, and intestines
What is the somatic part of the peripheral nervous system?
Spinal nerves–also called somatic nerves, connected to the spinal cord
Each spinal nerve is the fusion of two distinct branches, or roots:
- Dorsal (back) root–carries sensory information from the body to the spinal cord
- Ventral (front) root–carries motor information from the spinal cord to the muscles
What is the main difference between the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord?
Each spinal nerve is the fusion of two distinct branches, or roots:
- Dorsal (back) root–carries sensory information from the body to the spinal cord
- Ventral (front) root–carries motor information from the spinal cord to the muscles
What is the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system? What are they a part of? Where do they originate in the spinal cord?
The autonomic nervous system has three major divisions:
- Sympathetic nervous system
- Parasympathetic nervous system
- Enteric nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system - A component of the autonomic nervous system that arises from the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord. In general, sympathetic activation prepares the body for action: blood pressure increases, the pupils of the eyes widen, and the heart quickens. This set of reactions is sometimes called simply the “fight or flight” response.
Parasympathetic nervous system - A component of the autonomic nervous system that arises from both the cranial nerves and the sacral spinal cord. Generally helps the body to relax, recuperate, and prepare for future action, sometimes called the “rest and digest” response.
How does development relate to the way the structures of the brain are categorized as part of the telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon and myelencephalon?
Neural tube - An embryonic structure with subdivisions that correspond to the future forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
The walls of this neural tube are made of cells, and the interior is filled with fluid. A few weeks after conception, the human neural tube begins to show three separate swellings at the head end: the forebrain (or prosencephalon), the midbrain (or mesencephalon), and the hindbrain (or rhombencephalon).
About 50 days after conception, the forebrain and hindbrain have already developed clear subdivisions. At the very front of the developing brain is the telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon.
What are the meninges, why are they important?
Meninges are the three protective sheets of tissue—dura mater, pia mater, and arachnoid—that surround the brain and spinal cord.
Dura mater -The outermost of the three meninges that surround the brain and spinal cord.
Pia mater - the innermost of the three meninges that surround the brain and spinal cord
Arachnoid - The thin covering (one of the three meninges) of the brain that lies between the dura mater and pia mater.
What is meningitis?
An acute inflammation of the meninges, usually caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
Potentially lethal medical emergency characterized in early stages by headache, fever, and stiff neck as the inflamed meninges press on the brain.
What is CSF – where is it made, where does it flow, where is it re-absorbed. Do we make what we need on a daily basis?
What is CSF? Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) - The fluid that fills the cerebral ventricles.
where is it made? Choroid plexus - A highly vascular portion of the lining of the ventricles that secretes cerebrospinal fluid. Specialized membrane the lines the lateral ventricles produces CSF by filtering blood.
where does it flow? Ventricular system - A system of (CSF) fluid-filled cavities inside the brain. The middle layer of Meninges call Arachnoid - suspends the brain in a bath of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
where is it re-absorbed? CSF is absorbed back into the circulatory system through: large veins beneath the top of the skull.
Do we make what we need on a daily basis? First, it acts mechanically as a shock absorber for the brain: floating in CSF, the brain is protected from sudden movements of the head that would smash it against the inside of the skull.
Second, CSF provides a medium for the exchange of
materials, including nutrients, between
What do the ventricles do?
ventricular system - A system of fluid-filled cavities inside the brain.
The CSF circulating through the ventricular system has at least two
main functions. First, it acts mechanically as a shock absorber for the brain: floating in CSF, the brain is protected from sudden movements of the head that would smash it against the inside of the skull. Second, CSF provides a medium for the exchange of materials, including nutrients, between blood vessels and brain tissue.
lateral ventricle - A complexly shaped lateral portion of the ventricular system within each hemisphere of the brain.
third ventricle - The midline ventricle that conducts cerebrospinal fluid from the lateral ventricles to the fourth ventricle.
fourth ventricle - The passageway within the pons that receives cerebrospinal fluid from the third ventricle and releases it to surround the brain and spinal cord.
It has three small openings allow CSF to exit the ventricular system and circulate over the outer surface of the brain and spinal cord.
What behaviours are the four lobes of the brain involved in?
Frontal lobe - The most anterior portion of the cerebral cortex.
important for movement and high-level cognition
Parietal lobe - Large regions of cortex lying between the frontal and occipital lobes of each cerebral hemisphere. It receives sensory information from the body and participate in spatial cognition.
Temporal lobes - Large lateral cortical regions of each cerebral hemisphere, continuous with the parietal lobes posteriorly, and separated from the frontal lobe by the Sylvian fissure. Auditory information damage here can impair hearing the temporal lobes are also particularly associated with the sense of smell, and with aspects of learning and memory.
Occipital lobes - Large regions of cortex covering much of the posterior part of each cerebral hemisphere. Receive and process information from the eyes, giving rise to the sense of vision.
What is the difference between white and grey matter?
White matter - A shiny layer underneath the cortex that consists largely of axons with white myelin sheaths. Which consists mostly of fiber tracts. It gains its appearance from the whitish fatty myelin that ensheathes and insulates the axons of many neurons. White matter mostly transmits information.
Gray matter - Areas of the brain that are dominated by cell bodies and are devoid of myelin. On the exterior is dominated more by nerve cell bodies and dendrites, which are devoid of myelin. A simple view is that gray matter primarily processes information,
What is the difference between fissures, gyri and sulci?
The lumpy convolutions of the paired cerebral hemispheres are the result of elaborate folding together of a thick sheet of brain tissue called the cerebral cortex which is made up mostly of neurons and their fibers. The resulting ridges of tissue, called gyri, are separated from each other by furrows called sulci.
A fissure is a deep sulcus
Be familiar with the three major fissures.
Sylvian fissure Also called lateral sulcus. A deep fissure that demarcates the temporal lobe.
Central sulcus A fissure that divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.
Longitudinal fissure – the fissure that runs from the back to the front
Be familiar with the three major fissures.
Why are the pre- and post-central gyri important?
Postcentral gyrus - The strip of parietal cortex, just behind the central sulcus, that receives somatosensory information from the entire body.
Precentral gyrus - The strip of frontal cortex, just in front of the central sulcus, that is crucial for motor control.
What is the limbic system? What is its primary function? Hippocampus, amygdale, cingulate cortex, mammillary bodies – what do they do?
Limbic system - A loosely defined, wide-spread group of brain nuclei that innervate each other to form a network. Curving through each hemisphere, alongside the basal ganglia. It is critical for emotion and learning. Limbic structures near the base of the brain, especially the hypothalamus, help to govern highly motivated behaviors, like sex and aggression, and regulate the hormonal systems of the body.
Hippocampus - A medial temporal lobe structure that is important for learning and memory.
Amygdala - A group of nuclei in the medial anterior part of the temporal lobe. It has several subdivisions with diverse functions such as emotional regulation and odor perception.
Cingulate gyrus - A cortical portion of the limbic system, found in the frontal and parietal midline. Implicated in many cognitive functions, including the direction of attention.
Mammillary bodies - are important for emotion, learning, and memory.
What is the limbic system? What is its primary function? Hippocampus, amygdale, cingulate cortex, mammillary bodies – what do they do?
What are the basal ganglia? What is its primary function? Striatum, thalamus, amygdale, nucleus accumbens – what do they do?
Basal ganglia - A group of forebrain nuclei, including caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, and putamen, found deep within the cerebral hemispheres. The basal ganglia are very important in motor control.
Striatum The caudate nucleus and putamen together.
Thalamus - The brain regions that surround the third ventricle. Acts as a switchbox, directing almost all incoming sensory information to the appropriate regions of the cortex for further processing, and receiving instructions back from the cortex to control which sensory information is transmitted.
Amygdala - A group of nuclei in the medial anterior part of the temporal lobe. It has several subdivisions with diverse functions such as emotional regulation and odor perception.
Nucleus accumbens - A region of the forebrain that receives dopaminergic innervation from the ventral tegmental area.
What are the functions of the superior and inferior colliculi?
Superior colliculi - Paired gray matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that receive visual information and are involved in direction of visual gaze and visual attention to intended stimuli.
Inferior colliculi - Paired gray matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that receive auditory information.
What are the functions of the substantia nigra, hypothalamus (four behaviours), pituitary?
Hypothalamus - Part of the diencephalon, lying ventral to the thalamus.
It is packed with discrete nuclei involved in many vital functions, such as hunger, thirst, temperature regulation, sex, and many more. Furthermore, because the hypothalamus also controls the pituitary gland, it serves as the brain’s main interface with the hormonal systems of the body.
Substantia nigra - A brainstem structure in humans that innervates the basal ganglia. Contains neurons that release the transmitter dopamine.
Pituitary gland - Also called hypophysis. A small, complex endocrine gland located in a socket at the base of the skull. Includes anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary. Hormone secretion
What is the main function of each of the cerebellum, pons, medulla and reticular formation?
Cerebellum - t is involved in the central regulation of movement. Has long been known to be crucial for motor coordination and control, but we now know it also participates in certain aspects of cognition, including learning.
Pons - part of the brainstem connecting midbrain to medulla. Within the pons are important motor control and sensory nuclei, including several nuclei from which cranial nerves arise.
Reticular formation -An extensive region of the brainstem that is involved in arousal (waking). Variety of behaviors, including sleep and arousal, temperature regulation, and motor control.
What are the three main arteries in the brain proper? Please be able to speculate how damage (stroke) to one of these areas might affect behaviour – what would you ‘see’?
Anterior cerebral arteries - Two large arteries, arising from the carotids, that provide blood to the anterior poles and medial surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres. (stroke here would cause damage in movement and high-level cognition, receiving sensory information from the body and participate in spatial cognition.)
Middle cerebral arteries - Two large arteries, arising from the carotids, that provide blood to most of the lateral surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres. (stroke here would can impair hearing, the sense of smell, and with aspects of learning and memory)
Posterior cerebral arteries - Two large arteries, arising from the basilar artery, that provide blood to posterior aspects of the cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, and brainstem. (stroke here would cause problems with motor coordination and control, important motor control and sensory nuclei, including several nuclei from which cranial nerves arise and heart problems and death)
What is an MRI, fMRI or a PET scan? Be able to compare and contrast these two forms of imaging the human brain (you need to read these on your own)
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
A noninvasive technique that uses magnetic energy to generate images that reveal some structural details in the living brain.
MRI images are derived from radio frequency energy, the patient’s head is placed in the center of an extremely powerful circular magnet that causes all the protons in the brain’s tissues to line up in parallel, instead of in their usual random orientations. the protons are knocked over by a strong pulse of radio waves. When this pulse is turned off, the protons relax back to their original configuration, emitting radio waves as they go. a powerful computer uses this density-based information to generate a detailed cross-sectional map of the brain
With their higher resolution, MRI images can reveal subtle changes in the brain, such as the loss of myelin that is characteristic of multiple sclerosis
What is an MRI, fMRI or a PET scan? Be able to compare and contrast these two forms of imaging the human brain (you need to read these on your own)
positron emission tomography (PET)
positron emission tomography (PET)
A technique for examining brain function by combining tomography with injections of radioactive substances used by the brain.
the objective is to obtain images of the brain’s activity rather than details of its structure, and it has proven to be very valuable for both experimental and medical purposes.
we can generate metabolic maps of the brain that identify the regions that contribute to specific functions.
