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PSYC 3351 Brain and Behavior > Glossery > Flashcards

Glossery Flashcards

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1
Q

adult neurogenesis

A

The creation of new neurons in the brain of an adult.

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2
Q

amblyopia

A

Reduced visual acuity that is not caused by optical or retinal impairments.

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3
Q

Asperger’s syndrome

A

ometimes called high-functioning autism. A syndrome characterized by difficulties in social cognitive processing; usually accompanied by strong language skills.

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4
Q

autism

A

A disorder arising during childhood, characterized by social withdrawal and perseverative behavior.

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5
Q

behavioral teratology

A

The study of impairments in behavior that are produced by embryonic or fetal exposure to toxic substances.

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6
Q

binocular deprivation

A

Depriving both eyes of form vision, as by sealing the eyelids.

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7
Q

caspases

A

A family of proteins that regulate cell death (apoptosis).

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8
Q

cell adhesion molecule (CAM)

A

A protein found on the surface of a cell that guides cell migration and/or axonal pathfinding.

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9
Q

cell death or apoptosis

A

The developmental process during which “surplus” cells die.

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10
Q

cell differentiation

A

The developmental stage in which cells acquire distinctive characteristics, such as those of

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11
Q

cell migration

A

The movement of cells from site of origin to final location.

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12
Q

cell-cell interactions

A

The general process during development in which one cell affects the differentiation of other, usually neighboring, cells.

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13
Q

chemoattractants

A

Compounds that attract particular classes of growth cones.

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14
Q

chemorepellents

A

Compounds that repel particular classes of growth cones.

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15
Q

death gene

A

A gene that is expressed only when a cell becomes committed to natural cell death (apoptosis).

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16
Q

Diablo

A

A protein released by mitochondria, in response to high calcium levels, that activates apoptosis.

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17
Q

ectoderm

A

The outer cellular layer of the developing fetus, giving rise to the skin and the nervous system.

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18
Q

embryo

A

The earliest stage in a developing animal.

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19
Q

fetus

A

A developing individual after the embryo stage.

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20
Q

filopodia

A

Very fine, tubular outgrowths from the growth cone.

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21
Q

fragile X syndrome

A

A condition that is a frequent cause of inherited intellectual disability; produced by a fragile site on the X chromosome that seems prone to breaking because the DNA there is unstable.

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22
Q

growth cone

A

The growing tip of an axon or a dendrite.

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23
Q

hypoxia

A

A transient lack of oxygen.

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24
Q

induction

A

The process by which one set of cells influences the fate of neighboring cells, usually by secreting a chemical factor that changes gene expression in the target cells.

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25
Q

inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs)

A

A family of proteins that inhibit caspases and thereby stave off apoptosis.

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26
Q

lamellipodia

A

Sheetlike extensions of a growth cone.

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27
Q

monocular deprivation

A

Depriving one eye of light.

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28
Q

multiple sclerosis

A

terally, “many scars”; a disorder characterized by widespread degeneration of myelin.

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29
Q

nerve growth factor (NGF)

A

A substance that markedly affects the growth of neurons in spinal ganglia and in the ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system.

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30
Q

neural groove

A

n the developing embryo, the groove between the neural folds.

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31
Q

neural tube

A

An embryonic structure with subdivisions that correspond to the future forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

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32
Q

neurogenesis

A

The mitotic division of nonneuronal cells to produce neurons.

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33
Q

neurotrophic factor

A

Also called trophic factor. A target-derived chemical that acts as if it “feeds” certain neurons to help them survive.

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34
Q

neurotrophin

A

A chemical that prevents neurons from dying.

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35
Q

notochord

A

A midline structure arising early in the embryonic development of vertebrates.

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36
Q

ocular dominance histogram

A

A graph that portrays the strength of response of a brain neuron to stimuli presented to either the left eye or the right eye.

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37
Q

perseverate

A

To continue to show a behavior repeatedly

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38
Q

phenylketonuria (PKU)

A

An inherited disorder of protein metabolism in which the absence of an enzyme leads to a toxic buildup of certain compounds, causing intellectual disability.

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39
Q

process outgrowth

A

The extensive growth of axons and dendrites.

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40
Q

radial glial cells

A

Glial cells that form early in development, spanning the width of the emerging cerebral hemispheres, and guide migrating neurons.

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41
Q

regulation

A

An adaptive response to early injury, as when developing individuals compensate for missing or injured cells.

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42
Q

retrograde degeneration

A

Destruction of the nerve cell body following injury to its axon.

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43
Q

senile dementia

A

A neurological disorder of the aged that is characterized by progressive behavioral deterioration, including personality change and profound intellectual decline. It includes, but is not limited to, Alzheimer’s disease.

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44
Q

stem cellsynapse rearrangement

A

A cell that is undifferentiated and therefore can take on the fate of any cell that a donor organism can produce.

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45
Q

synapse rearrangement

A

Also called synaptic remodeling. The loss of some synapses and the development of others; a refinement of synaptic connections that is often seen in development.

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46
Q

synaptogenesis

A

The establishment of synaptic connections as axons and dendrites grow.

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47
Q

ventricular zone

A

Also called ependymal layer. A region lining the cerebral ventricles that displays mitosis, providing neurons early in development and glial cells throughout life.

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48
Q

zygote

A

The fertilized egg.

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49
Q

adaptation

A

The progressive loss of receptor sensitivity as stimulation is maintained.

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50
Q

adequate stimulus

A

The type of stimulus for which a given sensory organ is particularly adapted.

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51
Q

analgesia

A

Absence of or reduction in pain.

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52
Q

anterolateral system or spinothalamic system

A

A somatosensory system that carries most of the pain information from the body to the brain.

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53
Q

capsaicin

A

A compound synthesized by various plants to deter predators by mimicking the experience of burning.

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54
Q

central modulation of sensory information

A

The process in which higher brain centers, such as the cortex and thalamus, suppress some sources of sensory information and amplify others.

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55
Q

cingulate cortex

A

Also called cingulum. A region of medial cerebral cortex that lies dorsal to the corpus callosum.

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56
Q

coding

A

The rules by which action potentials in a sensory system reflect a physical stimulus.

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57
Q

congenital insensitivity to pain

A

The condition of being born without the ability to perceive pain.

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58
Q

dermatome

A

A strip of skin innervated by a particular spinal root.

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59
Q

dermis

A

he middle layer of skin, between the epidermis and the hypodermis.

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60
Q

dorsal column system

A

A somatosensory system that delivers most touch stimuli via the dorsal columns of spinal white matter to the brain.

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61
Q

endogenous opioids

A

A family of peptide transmitters that have been called the body’s own narcotics. The three kinds are enkephalins, endorphins, and dynorphins.

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62
Q

epidermis

A

The outermost layer of skin, over the dermis.

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63
Q

free nerve ending

A

An axon that terminates in the skin without any specialized cell associated with it and that detects pain and/or changes in temperature.

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64
Q

generator potential

A

A local change in the resting potential of a receptor cell that mediates between the impact of stimuli and the initiation of action potentials.

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65
Q

hypodermis

A

Also called subcutaneous tissue. The innermost layer of skin, under the dermis.

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66
Q

labeled lines

A

The concept that each nerve input to the brain reports only a particular type of information.

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67
Q

naloxone

A

A potent antagonist of opiates that is often administered to people who have taken drug overdoses. It binds to receptors for endogenous opioids.

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68
Q

neuropathic pain

A

Pain caused by damage to peripheral nerves; often difficult to treat.

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69
Q

nociceptor

A

A receptor that responds to stimuli that produce tissue damage or pose the threat of damage.

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70
Q

Pacinian corpuscle

A

A skin receptor cell type that detects vibration.

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71
Q

periaqueductal gray

A

The neuronal body–rich region of the midbrain surrounding the cerebral aqueduct that connects the third and fourth ventricles; involved in pain perception.

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72
Q

polymodal

A

Involving several sensory modalities.

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73
Q

primary sensory cortex

A

For a given sensory modality, the region of cortex that receives most of the information about that modality from the thalamus or, in the case of olfaction, directly from the secondary sensory neurons.

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74
Q

primary somatosensory cortex (S1) or somatosensory 1

A

The gyrus just posterior to the central sulcus where sensory receptors on the body surface are mapped. Primary cortex for receiving touch and pain information, in the parietal lobe.

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75
Q

range fractionation

A

A hypothesis of stimulus intensity perception stating that a wide range of intensity values can be encoded by a group of cells, each of which is a specialist for a particular range of stimulus intensities.

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76
Q

receptive field

A

The stimulus region and features that affect the activity of a cell in a sensory system.

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77
Q

receptor cell

A

A specialized cell that responds to a particular energy or substance in the internal or external environment, and converts this energy into a change in the electrical potential across its membrane.

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78
Q

Ruffini’s ending

A

A skin receptor cell type that detects stretching of the skin.

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79
Q

secondary sensory cortex or nonprimary sensory cortex

A

For a given sensory modality, the cortical regions receiving direct projections from primary sensory cortex for that modality.

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80
Q

secondary somatosensory cortex (S2) or somatosensory 2

A

The region of cortex that receives direct projections from primary somatosensory cortex.

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81
Q

sensory pathway

A

The chain of neural connections from sensory receptor cells to the cortex.

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82
Q

sensory receptor organ

A

An organ (such as the eye or ear) specialized to receive particular stimuli.

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83
Q

sensory transduction

A

The process in which a receptor cell converts the energy in a stimulus into a change in the electrical potential across its membrane.

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84
Q

somatosensory

A

Referring to body sensation, particularly touch and pain sensation.

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85
Q

specific nerve energies

A

The doctrine that the receptors and neural channels for the different senses are independent and operate in their own special ways, and can produce only one particular sensation each.

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86
Q

stimulus

A

A physical event that triggers a sensory response.

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87
Q

synesthesia

A

A condition in which stimuli in one modality evoke the involuntary experience of an additional sensation in another modality.

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88
Q

thalamus

A

The brain regions at the top of the brainstem that trade information with the cortex.

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89
Q

threshold

A

The stimulus intensity that is just adequate to trigger an action potential at the axon hillock.

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90
Q

tonic receptor

A

A receptor in which the frequency of action potentials declines slowly or not at all as stimulation is maintained.

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91
Q

transient receptor potential 2 (TRP2)

A

A receptor, found in some free nerve endings, that opens its channel in response to rising temperatures.

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92
Q

transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1)

A

Also called vanilloid receptor 1. A receptor that binds capsaicin to transmit the burning sensation from chili peppers and normally detects sudden increases in temperature.

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93
Q

amplitude

A

The force sound exerts per unit area, usually measured as dynes per square centimeter.

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94
Q

ampulla

A

An enlarged region of each semicircular canal that contains the receptor cells (hair cells) of the vestibular system.

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95
Q

amusia

A

A disorder characterized by the inability to discern tunes accurately.

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96
Q

anosmia

A

The inability to smell.

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97
Q

auditory brainstem implant (ABI)

A

A type of auditory prosthesis in which implanted microphones directly stimulate the auditory nuclei of the brainstem rather than the cochlea.

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98
Q

basilar membrane

A

A membrane in the cochlea that contains the principal structures involved in auditory transduction.

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99
Q

binaural

A

Pertaining to two ears.

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100
Q

Pertaining to two ears.

A

A hearing impairment that is related to lesions in auditory pathways or centers, including sites in the brainstem, thalamus, or cortex.

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101
Q

cilium

A

A hairlike extension.

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102
Q

circumvallate papillae

A

One of three types of small structures on the tongue, located in the back, that contain taste receptors.

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103
Q

cochlea

A

A snail-shaped structure in the inner ear that contains the primary receptor cells for hearing.

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104
Q

cochlear amplifier

A

The mechanism by which the cochlea is physically distorted by outer hair cells in order to “tune” the cochlea to be particularly sensitive to some frequencies more than others.

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105
Q

cochlear implant

A

An electromechanical device that detects sounds and selectively stimulates nerves in different regions of the cochlea via surgically implanted electrodes.

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106
Q

cochlear nuclei

A

Brainstem nuclei that receive input from auditory hair cells and send output to the superior olivary complex.

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107
Q

conduction deafness

A

A hearing impairment that is associated with pathology of the external-ear or middle-ear cavities.

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108
Q

cortical deafness

A

A hearing impairment that is caused by a fault or defect in the cortex.

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109
Q

dendritic knob

A

A portion of olfactory receptor cells present in the olfactory epithelium.

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110
Q

duplex theory

A

A theory that we localize sound by combining information about intensity differences and latency differences between the two ears.

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111
Q

external ear

A

The part of the ear that we readily see (the pinna) and the canal that leads to the eardrum.

112
Q

frequency

A

The number of cycles per second in a sound wave; measured in hertz (Hz).

113
Q

fungiform papillae

A

One of three types of small structures on the tongue, located in the front, that contain taste receptors.

114
Q

foliate papillae

A

One of three types of small structures on the tongue, located along the sides, that contain taste receptors.

115
Q

glomerulus

A

A complex arbor of dendrites from a group of olfactory cells.

116
Q

gustatory system

A

The taste system.

117
Q

hair cell

A

One of the receptor cells for hearing in the cochlea.

118
Q

hertz (Hz)

A

Cycles per second, as of an auditory stimulus.

119
Q

inferior colliculi

A

Paired gray matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that receive auditory information.

120
Q

inner ear

A

The cochlea and vestibular apparatus.

121
Q

inner hair cell (IHC)

A

One of the two types of receptor cells for hearing in the cochlea.

122
Q

intensity differences

A

Perceived differences in loudness between the two ears, which can be used to localize a sound source.

123
Q

latency differences

A

Differences between the two ears in the time of arrival of a sound, which can be employed by the nervous system to localize sound sources.

124
Q

lateral-line system

A

A sensory system, found in many kinds of fishes and some amphibians, that informs the animal of water motion in relation to the body surface.

125
Q

medial geniculate nuclei

A

Nuclei in the thalamus that receive input from the inferior colliculi and send output to the auditory cortex.

126
Q

middle ear

A

The cavity between the tympanic membrane and the cochlea.

127
Q

mitral cell

A

A type of cell in the olfactory bulb that conducts smell information from the glomeruli to the rest of the brain.

128
Q

monaural

A

Pertaining to one ear.

129
Q

olfactory bulb

A

An anterior projection of the brain that terminates in the upper nasal passages and, through small openings in the skull, provides receptors for smell.

130
Q

olfactory epithelium

A

A sheet of cells, including olfactory receptors, that lines the dorsal portion of the nasal cavities and adjacent regions, including the septum that separates the left and right nasal cavities.

131
Q

organ of Corti

A

A structure in the inner ear that lies on the basilar membrane of the cochlea and contains the hair cells and terminations of the auditory nerve.

132
Q

ossicles

A

Three small bones (incus, malleus, and stapes) that transmit sound across the middle ear, from the tympanic membrane to the oval window.

133
Q

ototoxic

A

Toxic to the ears, especially the middle or inner ear.

134
Q

outer hair cell (OHC)

A

One of the two types of receptor cells for hearing in the cochlea.

135
Q

oval window

A

The opening from the middle ear to the inner ear.

136
Q

papilla

A

A small bump that projects from the surface of the tongue. Papillae contain most of the taste receptor cells.

137
Q

pattern coding

A

Coding of information in sensory systems based on the temporal pattern of action potentials.

138
Q

pinna

A

The external part of the ear.

139
Q

pitch

A

A dimension of auditory experience in which sounds vary from low to high.

140
Q

place theory

A

A theory of frequency discrimination stating that pitch perception depends on the place of maximal displacement of the basilar membrane produced by a sound.

141
Q

pure tone

A

A tone with a single frequency of vibration.

142
Q

round window

A

A membrane separating the cochlear duct from the middle-ear cavity.

143
Q

semicircular canal

A

One of the three fluid-filled tubes in the inner ear that are part of the vestibular system. Each of the tubes, which are at right angles to each other, detects angular acceleration.

144
Q

sensorineural deafness

A

A hearing impairment that originates from cochlear or auditory nerve lesions.

145
Q

spectral filtering

A

Alteration of the amplitude of some, but not all, frequencies in a sound.

146
Q

stereocilium

A

A relatively stiff hair that protrudes from a hair cell in the auditory or vestibular system.

147
Q

tastant

A

A substance that can be tasted.

148
Q

taste bud

A

A cluster of 50–150 cells that detects tastes. Taste buds are found in papillae.

149
Q

taste pore

A

The small aperture through which tastant molecules are able to access the sensory receptors of the taste bud.

150
Q

tectorial membrane

A

A membrane that sits atop the organ of Corti in the cochlear duct.

151
Q

tensor tympani

A

The muscle attached to the malleus that modulates mechanical linkage to protect the delicate receptor cells of the inner ear from damaging sounds.

152
Q

tinnitus

A

A sensation of noises or ringing in the ears.

153
Q

tip link

A

A fine, threadlike fiber that runs along and connects the tips of stereocilia.

154
Q

tonotopic organization

A

A major organizational feature in auditory systems in which neurons are arranged as an orderly map of stimulus frequency, with cells responsive to high frequencies located at a distance from those responsive to low frequencies.

155
Q

transduction

A

The conversion of one form of energy to another.

156
Q

tuning curve

A

A graph of the responses of a single auditory nerve fiber or neuron to sounds that vary in frequency and intensity.

157
Q

tympanic membrane

A

Also called eardrum. The partition between the external ear and the middle ear.

158
Q

ultrasound

A

High-frequency sound; in general, above the threshold for human hearing, at about 20,000 Hz.

159
Q

umami

A

One of the five basic tastes (along with salty, sour, sweet, and bitter), probably mediated by amino acids in foods.

160
Q

volley theory

A

A theory of frequency discrimination that emphasizes the relation between sound frequency and the firing pattern of nerve cells.

161
Q

word deafness

A

The specific inability to hear words, although other sounds can be detected.

162
Q

accommodation (sight)

A

The process of focusing by the ciliary muscles and the lens to form a sharp image on the retina.

163
Q

bipolar cells

A

A class of interneurons of the retina that receive information from rods and cones and pass the information to retinal ganglion cells.

164
Q

blind spot

A

The portion of the visual field from which light falls on the optic disc. Because there are no receptors in this region, light striking it cannot be seen.

165
Q

ciliary muscle

A

One of the muscles that controls the shape of the lens inside the eye, focusing an image on the retina.

166
Q

complex cortical cell

A

A cell in the visual cortex that responds best to a bar of a particular size and orientation anywhere within a particular area of the visual field.

167
Q

cones

A

A class of photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for color vision.

168
Q

cornea

A

The transparent outer layer of the eye, whose curvature is fixed. It bends light rays and is primarily responsible for forming the image on the retina.

169
Q

extraocular muscle

A

One of the muscles attached to the eyeball that control its position and movements.

170
Q

fovea

A

The central portion of the retina, packed with the most photoreceptors and therefore the center of our gaze.

171
Q

ganglion cells

A

A class of cells in the retina whose axons form the optic nerve.

172
Q

horizontal cells

A

Specialized retinal cells that contact both the receptor cells and the bipolar cells.

173
Q

three basic dimensions of light perception

A

hue
brightness
saturation

174
Q

iris

A

The circular structure of the eye that provides an opening to form the pupil.

175
Q

mirror neuron

A

A neuron that is active both when an individual makes a particular movement and when that individual sees another individual make that same movement.

176
Q

myopia

A

Nearsightedness; the inability to focus the retinal image of objects that are far away.

177
Q

occipital cortex

A

Also called visual cortex. The cortex of the occipital lobe of the brain.

178
Q

ocular dominance column

A

A region of cortex in which one eye or the other provides a greater degree of synaptic input.

179
Q

ocular dominance slab

A

A slab of visual cortex, about 0.5 mm wide, in which the neurons of all layers respond preferentially to stimulation of one eye.

180
Q

opponent-process hypothesis

A

The theory that color vision depends on systems that produce opposite responses to light of different wavelengths.

181
Q

opsin

A

One of the two components of photopigments in the retina.

182
Q

optic chiasm

A

The point at which the two optic nerves meet.

183
Q

optic disc

A

The region of the retina devoid of receptor cells because ganglion cell axons and blood vessels exit the eyeball there.

184
Q

optic nerve

A

Cranial nerve II; the collection of ganglion cell axons that extend from the retina to the optic chiasm.

185
Q

optic radiation

A

Axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus that terminate in the primary visual areas of the occipital cortex.

186
Q

optic tract

A

The axons of retinal ganglion cells after they have passed the optic chiasm; most terminate in the lateral geniculate nucleus.

187
Q

orientation column

A

A column of visual cortex that responds to rod-shaped stimuli of a particular orientation.

188
Q

photon

A

A quantum of light energy.

189
Q

photopic system

A

A system in the retina that operates at high levels of light, shows sensitivity to color, and involves the cones.

190
Q

photoreceptor adaptation

A

The tendency of rods and cones to adjust their light sensitivity to match ambient levels of illumination.

191
Q

photoreceptors

A

Neural cells in the retina that respond to light.

192
Q

primary visual cortex (V1) or striate cortex

A

Also called area 17. The region of the occipital cortex where most visual information first arrives.

193
Q

pupil

A

The aperture, formed by the iris, that allows light to enter the eye.

194
Q

range fractionation

A

A hypothesis of stimulus intensity perception stating that a wide range of intensity values can be encoded by a group of cells, each of which is a specialist for a particular range of stimulus intensities.

195
Q

receptive field

A

The stimulus region and features that affect the activity of a cell in a sensory system.

196
Q

refraction

A

The bending of light rays by a change in the density of a medium, such as the cornea and the lens of the eyes.

197
Q

retina

A

The receptive surface inside the eye that contains photoreceptors and other neurons.

198
Q

retinal

A

One of the two components of photopigments in the retina.

199
Q

rhodopsin

A

The photopigment in rods that responds to light.

200
Q

rods

A

A class of light-sensitive receptor cells (photoreceptors) in the retina that are most active at low levels of light.

201
Q

scotoma

A

A region of blindness caused by injury to the visual pathway or brain.

202
Q

visual field

A

The whole area that you can see without moving your head or eyes.

203
Q

wavelength

A

The length between two peaks in a repeated stimulus such as a wave, light, or sound.

204
Q

acetylcholine (ACh)

A

A neurotransmitter produced and released by parasympathetic postganglionic neurons, by motoneurons, and by neurons throughout the brain.

205
Q

act

A

Also called action pattern. Complex behavior, as distinct from a simple movement.

206
Q

actin

A

A protein that, along with myosin, mediates the contraction of muscle fibers.

207
Q

alpha motoneuron

A

A motoneuron that controls the main contractile fibers (extrafusal fibers) of a muscle.

208
Q

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

A

Also called Lou Gehrig’s disease. A disease in which motoneurons and their target muscles waste away.

209
Q

antagonist

A

A muscle that counteracts the effect of another muscle.

210
Q

apraxia

A

An impairment in the ability to begin and execute skilled voluntary movements, even though there is no muscle paralysis.

211
Q

ataxia

A

An impairment in the direction, extent, and rate of muscular movement; often caused by cerebellar pathology.

212
Q

autoimmune disorder

A

A disorder caused when the immune system mistakenly attacks a person’s own body, thereby interfering with normal functioning.

213
Q

ballistic movement

A

A rapid muscular movement that is often organized or programmed in the cerebellum.

214
Q

basal ganglia

A

A group of forebrain nuclei, including caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, and putamen, found deep within the cerebral hemispheres.

215
Q

central pattern generator

A

Neural circuitry that is responsible for generating the rhythmic pattern of a behavior such as walking.

216
Q

cerebrocerebellum

A

The lowermost part of the cerebellum, consisting especially of the lateral parts of each cerebellar hemisphere.

217
Q

closed-loop control mechanism

A

A control mechanism that provides a flow of information from whatever is being controlled to the device that controls it.

218
Q

decomposition of movement

A

Difficulty of movement in which gestures are broken up into individual segments instead of being executed smoothly; a symptom of cerebellar lesions.

219
Q

dystrophin

A

A protein that is needed for normal muscle function.

220
Q

electromyography (EMG)

A

The electrical recording of muscle activity.

221
Q

extrafusal fiber

A

One of the ordinary muscle fibers that lie outside the spindles and provide most of the force for muscle contraction.

222
Q

extrapyramidal system

A

A motor system that includes the basal ganglia and some closely related brainstem structures.

223
Q

fast-twitch muscle fiber

A

A type of striated muscle that contracts rapidly but fatigues readily.

224
Q

final common pathway

A

The information-processing pathway consisting of all the motoneurons in the body. Motoneurons are known by this collective term because they receive and integrate all motor signals from the brain and then direct movement accordingly.

225
Q

flaccid paralysis

A

A loss of reflexes below the level of transection of the spinal cord.

226
Q

gamma motoneuron

A

Also called gamma efferent. A motor neuron that innervates the contractile tissue in a muscle spindle.

227
Q

Golgi tendon organ

A

One of the receptors located in tendons that send impulses to the central nervous system when a muscle contracts.

228
Q

huntingtin

A

A protein produced by a gene (called HTT) that, when containing too many trinucleotide repeats, results in Huntington’s disease in a carrier.

229
Q

Huntington’s disease

A

Also called Huntington’s chorea. A progressive genetic disorder characterized by abrupt, involuntary movements and profound changes in mental functioning.

230
Q

ideational apraxia

A

An impairment in the ability to carry out a sequence of actions, even though each element or step can be done correctly.

231
Q

ideomotor apraxia

A

The inability to carry out a simple motor activity in response to a verbal command, even though this same activity is readily performed spontaneously.

232
Q

innervation ratio

A

The ratio expressing the number of muscle fibers innervated by a single motor axon.

233
Q

intrafusal fiber

A

One of the small muscle fibers that lie within each muscle spindle.

234
Q

l-dopa

A

The immediate precursor of the transmitter dopamine.

235
Q

mirror neuron

A

A neuron that is active both when an individual makes a particular movement and when an individual sees another individual make that same movement.

236
Q

motoneuron

A

Also called motor neuron. A nerve cell in the spinal cord that transmits motor messages from the spinal cord to muscles.

237
Q

motor plan

A

Also called motor program. A plan for action in the nervous system.

238
Q

motor unit

A

A single motor axon and all the muscle fibers that it innervates.

239
Q

movement

A

A brief, unitary activity of a muscle or body part; less complex than an act.

240
Q

muscle fiber

A

A collection of large cylindrical cells, making up most of a muscle, that can contract in response to neurotransmitter released from a motoneuron.

241
Q

muscle spindle

A

A muscle receptor that lies parallel to a muscle and sends impulses to the central nervous system when the muscle is stretched.

242
Q

muscular dystrophy (MD)

A

A disease that leads to degeneration of and functional changes in muscles

243
Q

myasthenia gravis

A

A disorder characterized by a profound weakness of skeletal muscles; caused by a loss of acetylcholine receptors.

244
Q

myosin

A

A protein that, along with actin, mediates the contraction of muscle fibers.

245
Q

neuromuscular junction (NMJ)

A

The region where the motoneuron terminal and the adjoining muscle fiber meet; the point where the nerve transmits its message to the muscle fiber.

246
Q

nonprimary motor cortex

A

Frontal lobe regions adjacent to the primary motor cortex that contribute to motor control and modulate the activity of the primary motor cortex.

247
Q

open-loop control mechanism

A

A control mechanism in which feedback from the output of the system is not provided to the input control.

248
Q

paresis

A

Partial paralysis.

249
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

A degenerative neurological disorder, characterized by tremors at rest, muscular rigidity, and reduction in voluntary movement, that involves dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra.

250
Q

plegia

A

Paralysis, the loss of the ability to move.

251
Q

polioviruses

A

A class of viruses that destroy motoneurons of the spinal cord and brainstem.

252
Q

premotor cortex

A

region of nonprimary motor cortex just anterior to the primary motor cortex.

253
Q

primary motor cortex (M1)

A

The apparent executive region for the initiation of movement; primarily the precentral gyrus.

254
Q

primary sensory ending

A

Also called annulospiral ending. The axon that transmits information from the central portion of a muscle spindle.

255
Q

proprioception

A

Body sense; information about the position and movement of the body that is sent to the brain.

256
Q

pyramidal system or corticospinal system

A

The motor system that includes neurons within the cerebral cortex and their axons, which form the pyramidal tract.

257
Q

ramp movement

A

Also called smooth movement. A slow, sustained motion that is often controlled by the basal ganglia.

258
Q

red nucleus

A

A brainstem structure related to motor control.

259
Q

reflex

A

A simple, highly stereotyped, and unlearned response to a particular stimulus (e.g., an eye blink in response to a puff of air).

260
Q

reticular formation

A

An extensive region of the brainstem (extending from the medulla through the thalamus) that is involved in arousal (waking).

261
Q

reticulospinal tract

A

A tract of axons arising from the brainstem reticular formation and descending to the spinal cord to modulate movement.

262
Q

rubrospinal tract

A

A tract of axons arising from the red nucleus in the midbrain and innervating neurons of the spinal cord.

263
Q

secondary sensory ending

A

Also called flower spray ending. The axon that transmits information from the ends of a muscle spindle.

264
Q

size principle

A

The idea that, as increasing numbers of motor neurons are recruited to produce muscle responses of increasing strength, small, low-threshold neurons are recruited first, followed by large, high-threshold neurons.

265
Q

slow-twitch muscle fiber

A

A type of striated muscle fiber that contracts slowly but does not fatigue readily.

266
Q

smooth muscle

A

A type of muscle fiber, as in the heart, that is controlled by the autonomic nervous system rather than by voluntary control.

267
Q

spasticity

A

Markedly increased rigidity in response to forced movement of the limbs.

268
Q

spinal animal

A

An animal whose spinal cord has been surgically disconnected from the brain to enable the study of behaviors that do not require brain control.

269
Q

spinocerebellum

A

The uppermost part of the cerebellum, consisting mostly of the vermis and anterior lobe.

270
Q

stretch reflex

A

The contraction of a muscle in response to stretch of that muscle.

271
Q

striated muscle

A

A type of muscle with a striped appearance, generally under voluntary control.

272
Q

striatum

A

The caudate nucleus and putamen together.

273
Q

substantia nigra

A

A brainstem structure in humans that innervates the basal ganglia and is named for its dark pigmentation.

274
Q

supplementary motor area (SMA)

A

A region of nonprimary motor cortex that receives input from the basal ganglia and modulates the activity of the primary motor cortex.

275
Q

synergist

A

A muscle that acts together with another muscle.

276
Q

tendon

A

Strong tissue that connects muscles to bone.

277
Q

vestibulocerebellum

A

The middle portion of the cerebellum, sandwiched between the spinocerebellum and the cerebrocerebellum and consisting of the nodule and the flocculus.

PSYC 3351 Brain and Behavior (13 decks)

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