Appendix A1-A3 Genetics

Question 1

gene

Answer 1

A length of DNA that encodes the information for constructing a particular protein. The most important thing about genes is that they are pieces of information, inherited from parents, that affect the development and function of our cells. Information carried by the genes is a very specific sort: each gene codes for the construction of a specific string of amino acids to form a protein molecule. This is all that genes do; they do not directly encode intelligence, or memories, or any other sort of complex behavior.

Question 2

protein

Answer 2

A long string of amino acids. The basic building material of organisms. These proteins make complex behavior possible, and in that context they are also the targets upon which the forces of evolution act.

Question 3

enzyme

Answer 3

A complicated protein whose action increases the probability of a specific chemical reaction. For example, only cells that have liver-typical proteins will look like a liver cell and be able to perform liver functions.

Question 4

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Answer 4

A nucleic acid that is present in the chromosomes of cells and codes hereditary information.

Question 5

nucleotide

Answer 5

A portion of a DNA or RNA molecule that is composed of a single base and the adjoining sugar-phosphate unit of the strand.

Question 6

DNA has only four nucleotides

Answer 6

guanine, cytosine, thymine, and adenine (abbreviated G, C, T, and A).

Question 7

hybridization

Answer 7

The process by which a string of nucleotides becomes linked to a complementary series of nucleotides.

Question 8

chromosome

Answer 8

A complex of condensed strands of DNA and associated protein molecules; found in the nucleus of cells.

Question 9

eukaryote

Answer 9

A complex of condensed strands of DNA and associated protein molecules; found in the nucleus of cells.

Question 10

cell nucleus

Answer 10

The spherical central structure of a cell that contains the chromosomes.

Question 11

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Answer 11

A nucleic acid that implements information found in DNA.

Question 12

transcription

Answer 12

The process during which mRNA forms bases complementary to a strand of DNA. The resulting message (called a transcript) is then used to translate the DNA code into protein molecules

Question 13

messenger RNA (mRNA)

Answer 13

A strand of RNA that carries the code of a section of a DNA strand to the cytoplasm.

Question 14

transcript

Answer 14

The mRNA strand that is produced when a stretch of DNA is “read.”

Question 15

ribosomes

Answer 15

Structures in the cell body where genetic information is translated to produce proteins.

Question 16

translation

Answer 16

The process by which amino acids are linked together (directed by an mRNA molecule) to form protein molecules.

Question 17

codon

Answer 17

A set of three nucleotides that uniquely encodes one particular amino acid.

Question 18

peptide

Answer 18

A short string of amino acids. Longer strings of amino acids are called proteins.

Question 19

genome

Answer 19

Also called genotype. All the genetic information that one specific individual has inherited.

Question 20

expression

Answer 20

The process by which a cell makes an mRNA transcript of a particular gene.

Question 21

cell differentiation

Answer 21

The developmental stage in which cells acquire distinctive characteristics, such as those of neurons, as the result of expressing particular genes.

Question 22

clones

Answer 22

Asexually produced organisms that are genetically identical.

Question 23

DNA sequencing

Answer 23

The process by which the order of nucleotides in a gene, or amino acids in a protein, is determined.

Question 24

Chromosomes

Answer 24

23 pairs, contain our genes, one from each parent

Question 25

Alleles

Answer 25

the matching pair of genes, on a chromosome pair, that control a trait (protein product)

Question 26

Homozygous And Heterozygous

Answer 26

Homozygous – the alleles are the same Heterozygous – the alleles are different

Question 27

Mutations 1Chromosome DIAGRAM

Answer 27

Question 28

Mutations 2 Chromosomes DIAGRAM

Answer 28

1. Insertions 2. Translocations (crossing over)

Question 29

4 Nucleotide bases

Answer 29

adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine

Question 30

Unwinding DNA DIAGRAM

Answer 30

Question 31

Gene to Protein DIAGRAM

Answer 31

Gene to Protein DIAGRAM

Question 32

Transcription & Translation DIAGRAM

Answer 32

Transcription & Translation DIAGRAM

Question 33

Epigenetics DIAGAM

Answer 33

Changes in a phenotype without changes to the underlying genotype.

Question 34

Agouti Mice - Epigenetics

Answer 34

And as you can see, the yellow mouse is quite obese, and she is also prone to diabetes and cancer. But on the other hand, the brown mouse remains slender and lean and also has a lower risk of developing disease. But what's really amazing about these two mice are that they are genetically identical — they are two identical twin sisters from the same mother. it turns out that there's a second genome called the epigenome. Epigenome literally means, in addition to, or above, the genome, All of our cells contain the same DNA and genes, but it is the epigenome that decides how these genes are expressed and determines how a cell becomes a heart cell, a liver cell or even a hair cell. Epigenetics consists of molecular switches and markers, such as DNA methylation, that help control gene regulation in which a quartet of atoms called a methyl group attaches to DNA and shuts down genes In the yellow obese mouse, the Agouti gene is unmethylated and turned on all the time, while in the brown mouse, the gene is completely methylated and shut down. We used the Agouti mice to study how maternal nutrients and environmental factors affect the epigenome. Specifically, we wanted to know whether a mom's exposure to a contaminant found everywhere in the environment can alter the fetal epigenome, and eventually the long-term fate of her offspring. In the study, pregnant mothers were exposed to a common chemical found in certain plastics. This chemical is called bisphenol-A, or BPA for short, And when we fed the pregnant mothers, the mice, BPA, we noticed that the number of offspring with the yellow obese coat color increased dramatically, The level of soy that we provided is similar to what a person who eats a high soy diet or an individual living in Asia might eat. And once we did this, we observed that the offspring were no longer predominantly yellow and more obese, and that there were more offspring with the slender brown coat color phenotype. This indicates that maternal nutrient supplementation can counteract the negative effects of exposure to that chemical. These studies with the agouti mice show us that we can no longer say whether genetics or the environment have a greater impact on our health, because the two are inextricably linked through the epigenome.

Question 35

How do you make a protein from a DNA strand?

Answer 35

In the ribosome Transcription mRNA

Question 36

What is DNA made from versus a protein?

Answer 36

DNA - Alleles which are made of proteins Protein – peptides which are long strings of amino acids.

Question 37

Why are proteins important in the CNS?

Answer 37

It is the force which evolution works on