MIDTERM I - CHAPTER 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Is Phineas Gage’s personality and attitude change an example of learning?
A
No, because it has to do with physiological change.
2
Q
Learning is a relatively permanent _____________ in behaviour, knowledge, capability, or attitude.
A
change
3
Q
What is learning acquired through?
A
experience
4
Q
T or F:
We cannot attribute learning to illness, injury or maturation.
A
True
5
Q
T or F
Reflexes and instinctive behaviours are inborn and do not require learning.
A
True
6
Q
Learning is most successful when it takes into account the ____________ ______________ structures of the organism.
A
preexisting behaviour
7
Q
What is the simplest form of elicited behaviour?
A
The reflexive behaviour.
8
Q
What two closely related event does a reflex include?
A
1) Eliciting Stimulus
2) Corresponding response
9
Q
Explain the Reflex Response
A
The environmental stimulus for a reflex activates a sensory neuron (afferent neuron), which transmits the sensory message to the spinal cord. Neural impulses are then relayed to the motor neuron (efferent neuron), which activate muscles in the reflex response.
10
Q
What do sensory and motor neurons communicate through?
A
interneuron
11
Q
What is another name for motor neuron?
A
Efferent Neuron
12
Q
What is another name for sensory neuron?
A
Afferent Neuron
13
Q
The afferent neuron, interneuron, and efferent neuron consist of what?
A
The Reflex Arc
14
Q
What did the head-turning reflex in babies facilitate?
A
Finding the nipple
15
Q
What is the milk-letdown reflex?
A
the availability of the milk is determined by infant’s suckling behaviour. It can later also be stimulated by cues that remind it of this. Ex: baby crying.
16
Q
What is the Respiratory Occlusion Reflex?
A
Stimulated by a reduction of air flow to the baby.
Cause: towel or cloth covering their face or mucus accumulated in nasal passage
Reaction: pull his head back, maybe even their hands in a face-wiping motion.
17
Q
Suckling in response to an object placed in the mouth is a characteristic of _________________
A
Mammalian infants
18
Q
What would we call response sequences such as those involved in infant feeding?
A
Modal Action Pattern (MAPS)
18
Q
The feeding of a herring gull demonstrates what?
A
Modal Action Pattern (MAPS)
19
Q
Why did Tinbergen and Perdeck (1950) test chicks with various artifical models instead of live adult gulls?
A
To isolate which sitmuli (color, shape, length of bill, noises, movements or all ) elicits chicks pecking at the parent gull.
20
Q
What did the Tinbergen and Perdeck (1950) study conclude?
A
The eliciting stimulus had to be a long, thin, moving object, pointed downwards with a contrasting red patch at the bottom.
21
Q
What do we call these essential features necessary for an eliciting stimuli?
A
Sign Stimulus / Releasing Stimulius
22
Q
What study introduced the sign stimulus and supernormal stimulus?
A
Tinbergen and Perdeck (1950)
23
Q
What is a supernormal stimulus?
A
Once a sign stimulus is identified, it can be exaggerated to elicit an especially vigorous response.
24
Traumatic events have come to elicit strong defensive ____________.
MAPs
25
What do we call behaviour that involves a complex sequence of motor responses that have to be elaborately coordinated with the behaviour of one's sexual partner?
Copulatory behaviour
26
T or F:
MAPs include activities that are informally characterized as instinctive.
True
27
T or F
Responses occur in isolation of one another.
False.
28
What do we call early components of a behaviour sequence?
Appetitive Behaviour
29
What do we call end components of a behaviour sequence?
Consummatory Behaviour
30
_____1_______ behaviour serves to bring the organism into contact with the stimuli that will release the _____2________ behaviour.
1) Appetitive
2) Consummatory
31
Which behaviour in the behaviour sequence is more variable and can take a variety of different forms depending on the context?
Appetitive Behaviour
32
What tends to be species-typical MAPs?
Consummatory responses
33
What do we call it when the animal does not yet know where to look for food.
General Search Mode
34
Define Focal Search Mode
Once they have found where they will eat, they search for the food in that set area (example: tree)
35
What mode does the animal switch to once they have found their appropriate ripe food?
Food Handling and Ingestion mode
=
Consummatory Behaviour
36
Who believed that an elicited response (particularly a simple reflex response) will automatically occur the same way each time the eliciting stimulus is presented.
Descartes (Common Assumption)
37
T or F
Elicited Behaviour is readily subject to modification through experience.
TRUE
38
How is learning acquired?
Through experience
39
Who believed that reflexes are automatic, innate, and invariant
Descartes
40
What test was done in response to the claim that :
"Energy of eliciting stimulus is transferred to the motor response through a direct physical connection"
Taste Reactivity Experiment by Epstein et al. (2009)
41
What study tells us that elicited behaviour is not invariant across repetitions of the eliciting stimulus?
Taste Reactivity Experiment by Epstein et al. (2009)
42
Define Habituation Effect
Decline in responding that occurs with repeated presentation of a stimulus.
43
How is habituation stimulus specific?
Use the example of an experiment.
Taste Reactivity Experiment by Epstein et al. (2009)
The decrease in responding was specific to the habituated stimulus (lemon in one group, lime in the other). When tested with the taste of the unhabituated stimulus, they showed high response again.
44
How did Epstein find that having one's attention directed to nonfood cues keeps the food from becoming uninteresting through habituation?
Children tested for taste habituation while working on a problem requiring close attention
Other children with a task that requires no attention
If children's attention was focused elsewhere, they showed less habituation to the flavour
45
Obesity may in part be a disorder of what?
Possibly Habituation
46
What does this describe:
"A progressive decrease in the vigour of elicited behavior that may occur with repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus"
Habituation Effect
47
Describe the Habituation Effect
When we habituate to something in our environment, it means we respond less and less to it until eventually, we do not even notice it is there!
48
The Cocktail Effect or Crowded Bar Effect are examples of ?
Habituation Effect
49
Explain the Cocktail Effect
if somebody says your name, talking to you or not if someone says your name, you hear and turn your head. Even though you are habituated to background
50
What study shows results that visual attention elicited by a novel stimulus changes as babies gain familiarity with the stimulus?
Bashinski, Werner & Rudy, 1985 Study on Visual Attention
51
In Bashinski, Werner & Rudy, 1985 Study on Visual Attention, what was demonstrated in the increased looking during the second trial as compared to the first?
Sensitization Effect
52
What experiment tells us about sensitization and habituation effects?
1985
53
In the Bashinski, Werner & Rudy, 1985 Study on Visual Attention, what did the 4 x 4 simple checker plot produce?
Habituation Effect
54
What do we call a response part of an organism's defensive reaction to potential or actual attack?
Startle response
55
What was a stabilimeter chamber used for?
Measure the startle response in rats
56
Describe Leaton Study Results
Most intense startle was observed the firs time the tone was presented.
Progressively less intense startle reactions during the 10 days. (Habituating effect) Still reacted a bit, just always decreasing.
In phase 2 (300 trials), startle reactions ceased (temporary loss of responsiveness).
Phase 3 (once a day tone), startle response recovered back to day 11 level. This is spontaneous recovery.
56
Describe Leaton (1976)'s study
In Leaton (1976)'s study, rats were allowed to get used to the chamber, then were presented with a loud, high-pitched tone for 2 seconds.
Rats received this tone for 11 days
Then in the next trial, tones were presently much more frequently for 300 trials.
Animals given a single tone presentation on each of the next three days
57
When does spontaneous recovery occur?
When eliciting stimulus (tone) has not been presented in a long time, and then is.
58
What kind of effect is identified by spontaneous recovery of responding following a period without stimulation.
Short-term habituation effect
59
Long-term habituation effect occurs when?
stimuli are presented widely spaced in time
60
What do we call relatively stable point after substantial training ?
Asymptote
61
Habituation is found in every single animal study, what do we call this?
Ubiqutous
62
What do we call it when already aroused, the same eliciting stimulus will trigger a much stronger reaction than if you weren't aroused?
Sensitization effect
63
Explain Davis startle response study on rats in 1974.
Some rats had 60 decibels of background noise, while the other rats had 80.
Loud background noise aroused them (80 db) enough so that when they were experiencing the same tone as the lower group (60), they were more responsive (annoyed).
64
T or F
Arousal intensifies our experiences, wether those experiences are pleasant or unpleasant.
True
(Sensitization Effect)
65
Sexual Behaviour can be explained by _______________ effect.
Sensitization.
66
The _____________ response is an early component of the startle response.
Eyeblink
67
What helps us classify and ignore irrelevant cues.
Habituation
68
"We quickly being to adapt to it, and the experience yields less pleasure each time"
Habituation
69
What is sensory adaptation
The sense organ becomes disabled leading to an elicited response failing to occur but not because of habituation
70
What is a reason other than sensory adaption for a failed elicited response ? (No habituation)
Fatigue
71
In ____________, the organism ceases to respond, even though it remains fully capable of sensing the elicited stimulus and making the muscle movements required.
Habituation
72
T or F :
The changes that occur in habituation effect, this response fails because of changes that disrupt neurotransmission involving the interneurons.
True
73
How do we rule out sensory adaption in studies of habituation?
Evidence that habituation is response specific, meaning an organism may stop responding in one aspect but continue in another
Ex: Teacher talking while doing a test, you look up and then back down to continue while listening.
74
How do we rule out response fatigue as a cause of habituation?
Evidence that habituation is stimulus specific, meaning a habituated response will quickly recover when a new stimulus is presented.
75
What did Groves & Thompson (1970) suggest?
Dual Process Theory of Habituation and Sensitization
76
What does the Dual Process Theory of Habituation and Sensitization suggest?
Tries to explain what an organism’s response might be to a repeated stimulus.
77
What are the two processes called that occur in different parts of the nervous system?
S-R System
State System
78
T or F:
The habituation process and sensitization process are the same as the habituation and sensitization effects.
False. They are not.
79
What are habituation and sensitization processes?
Underlying mechanisms
80
What are habituation and sensitization effects?
Behaviours
81
What is another name for the HABITUATION PROCESS?
S-R System
82
What theory names different types of underlying neural processes responsible for increases and decreases in responsiveness?
Dual Process Theory
Groves & Thompson (1970)
83
What is a prime example of the S-R System?
Reflex Arc
84
What is another name for the SENSITIZATION PROCESS?
State System
85
T or F
Both habituation and sensitization processes can occur at the same time.
True
86
What outcome is the net result of both S-R system and state system?
Behavioural Outcome
87
What are the distinctions between processes and effects similar to or reflect?
Distinction between performance and learning.
88
What system occurs in the shortest neural pathway between sense and muscles involved in the response?
S-R System
89
What system occurs in parts of the nervous system that determine an organism’s level of responsiveness or arousal?
State System
90
Define what happens to the threshold of the state system.
A high threshold that, when activated, increases
responses globally
91
Define what happens to the threshold of the S-R system.
A low-threshold reflex pathway that weakens with repeated use
92
Which system is activated every time an eliciting stimulus occurs?
S-R system
93
Which system is activated only when arousing events occur and can also be altered by emotions?
State system
94
Which system has to be activated first?
State System
95
T or F:
"The state system gives a boost to all SR systems"
True
96
What stimulus is responsible for primarily reflex pathway activation, and sees stimulus-specific decline in responsiveness?
Weak Stimulus
97
What stimulus is responsible for initial reflex and state system causing more
responsiveness, but gradually, reflex weakening dominates
Noxious (very unpleasant) stimulus
98
What stimulus is responsible for initial reflex + state system causing more
responsiveness, but gradually, reflex weakening dominates?
Moderate stimulus
99
Which processes does spontaneous recovery occur with?
Both, since the habituation and sensitization process decay overtime without stimulation.
100
What interpretation does this represent:
"If after habituation training the eliciting stimulus is changed, the new stimulus will elicit a nonhabituated response because it activates a different S-R Circuit"
Habituation will be stimulus specific.
101
How did the Taste Experiment show that "Habituation will be stimulus specific" ?
After the salivary and affective responses to one taste stimulus (ex, the lime) had substantially habituated, the responses showed total recovery when a different taste (ex: lemon) was presented.
102
Give a real life example of:
Habituation will be stimulus specific.
Once you become habituated to the sounds of your car engine, your attention to the engine is likely to return if it malfunctions and begins to make new noises.
103
Is sensitization also stimulus specific?
No
104
What does the fear-potentiated startle phenomenon illustrate?
If you become aroused by fear, this will increase your startled response to a puff of air or burst of noise.
105
What features have made Aplysia popular for understanding neural mechanisms of learning and memory?
Kandel et al. studied Aplysia because they have only 20 000 very large neurons in its CNS.
106
What is the Gill-Withdrawal Reflex in Aplysia?
When the Aplysia senses danger, they retract their gills. How long will they hold in their gills until they feel the danger is gone.
If you cause stimulation on the tail, siphon or gill, the gill contracts (retracts) within the mantle
107
How did Kandel produce habituation in Aplysia ?
Repeatedly applying the tactile stimulus to the siphon.
With continued exposure, the magnitude of the gill-withdrawal reflex becomes smaller (habituates to danger).
108
What should we account for to conclude that habituation and learning did occur in the Apylsia? How do we do so?
We need to eliminate other possible responses like fatigue.
How do we know retracting gills over and over again hasn’t tired it? You stimulate them somewhere else. Example: head instead of siphon. See if there is a reaction.
The habituated response is not due to muscle fatigue or a change in motor neuron response because touching the head produces a full response. Fatigue not a reason, learning has occurred.
109
What is the reflex in the Aplysia like?
The siphon stimulation engages a sensory neuron (SN), which then communicates with glutamate (go signal), which activates the motor neuron (MN).
110
The introduction to an aversive shock the tail demonstrates what?
Sensitization
State system
111
What happens if a shock stimulus is applied to the tail of the aplysia?
It sensitizes the gill-withdrawal response elicited by touching the siphon.
112
What does the degree to which a particular receptor is engaged depend on?
It's proximity to the locus of stimulation.
113
What neuron presynaptically innervates the sensory neuron and is engaged by a sensitizing tail-shock?
Facilitatory interneuron
114
What does the magnitude of the gill-withdrawal reflex depend on?
The amount of neurotransmitter released from the motor neurons.
115
If they wanted to induce sensitization another way in the Aplysia, not through shock, what could they have done?
Ramped up the intensity of whatever they were touching the siphon with.
The repeated water jet could have showed an increase in the gill-withdrawal reflex, if it is intense enough.
116
Describe the mechanism of sensitization
The tail shock activates interneurons which are put on guard and alert. These interneurons release serotonin, which modulates sensory neurons to release more transmitters on the next activation.
Serotonin becomes present on synapses, amplifying the communication (causing more glutamate to be released).
If sensory neurons are activated following that, the serotonin makes them stronger, causing an increase in the response of the motor neuron in the gill-withdrawal reflex.
117
What are the 5 implications of the Aplysia study?
1) S-R system activated every time a stimulus is presented.
2) As a consequence of the S-R circuitry, habituation is stimulus-specific.
3) The state system involved under particular circumstances.
4) The state system can interact with numerous S-R systems so sensitization effects can generalize.
5) Both habituation and sensitization decay over time.
118
What do we call habituation of a primary drug or a decline in the effectiveness of a drug with repeated exposures?
Drug tolerance
119
T or F
Because of the development of tolerance, habitual drug users sometimes do not enjoy taking the drug as much as naive user
True
120
Define Habituation Effect
A progressive decrease in the vigour of elicited behaviour that may occur with repeated presentations by that elicited stimulus
121
Define Habituation Process
A neural mechanism activated by repetitions of a stimulus that reduces the magnitude of responses elicited by that stimulus.
122
What is the Opponent Process Theory ?
a) assumes that neurophsiological mechanisms involved in emotional behaviour serve to maintain emotional stability.
b) assumes that neuropsychological mechanisms involved in emotional behaviour serve to maintain emotional stability.
c) An important function of mechanisms that control emotions is to keep us on an even keel and minimize the highs and lows.
d) A and C
d) A and C
123
Name a homeostatic theory we learned about
Opponent Process Theory of Motivation
Solomon & Corbit (1974)
124
What is the primary process (a) in the Opponent Process Theory of Motivation?
What the presentation of an emotion-arousing stimulus initially elicits.
125
What is the opponent process (b) in the Opponent Process Theory of Motivation?
Generates the opposite emotional reaction.
Because it is activated by the primary process it lags behind the primary emotional disturbance.
126
What does this refer to:
"If you find a bump and are waiting for results you are stressed and afraid up until you get results that it was benign, you are relaxed now but you don't go back to baseline "
Opponent Process Theory of Motivation?
127
What does the opponent process theory suggest about the reasoning for drug addiction?
To avoid withdrawal symptoms
128
Drug-seeking behaviour is reinforced in part by the fact that drug-taking ______1______ activity in the brain circuits associated with reward and strengthening of opponent neural mechanisms as referred to as ______2______.
1) reduces
2) anti-reward circuit
