MIDTERM I - CHAPTER 1 Flashcards
1
Q
T or F
Learning can be seen in many species
A
True
2
Q
What kind of process is learning?
A
Biological
3
Q
What is it called when animals use their adjustments to adapt to their environment?
A
Biological definition of Learning
4
Q
“Learning is the process of accumulating knowledge”
corresponds to which definition of learning?
A
Philosophical Definition
5
Q
What is knowledge?
A
Knowledge is internally stored information about the world and about how things work.
6
Q
Implicit Knowledge is also known as ________________
A
Procedural Learning
7
Q
What kind of knowledge of learning looks at how to memories, skilled actions and cognitive abilities ?
A
Implicit Knowledge or Procedural Learning
8
Q
True or False :
Procedural knowledge differentiates itself because we cannot properly discuss how to do these things.
A
True
9
Q
T or F :
This is the biological definition of learning:
“Learning is a biological process that make difficult the adaptation to one’s environment”
A
False. Learning is a biological process that facilitates adaptation to one’s environment
10
Q
The biological definition suggest what two things?
A
1) Biology dictates learning
2) Experience alters biology
11
Q
What rule of the biological definition does this refer to in learning :
Never taught children how to turn on a light switch or turn to open a door. They observe you but cannot display their knowledge of it until they are tall enough.
A
Biology dictates learning
12
Q
What rule of the biological definition does this refer to in learning :
Study in rats that good mothers and the experience of being a good mother are more likely to have offspring that are likely to become good mothers.
A
Experience alters biology
13
Q
What is the psychological definition of learning?
A
Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour due to exposure to a similar situation in the past.
14
Q
What are the two problems with the psychological definition of learning?
A
1) Not always the acquisition of new behaviour
2) Changes in behaviour may not always be due to learning
15
Q
What does this scenario demonstrate:
“if I bring out a pizza, and they start eating the pizza and finally stop eating. My interpretation is that they stopped liking pizza, or maybe they just don’t want to eat anymore because they are full. Their physiology has gotten away (full).”
A
We display behaviours for a multitude of reasons and learning is just one of them.
16
Q
What is the argument to : Learning is not always the acquisition of a new behaviour.
A
Stopping a behaviour can be displaying learning.
17
Q
Define short-term changes in behaviour.
A
Short-term changes are changes in behaviour that are too short-lasting to be considered instances of learning
18
Q
Give three examples of short-term changes.
A
1 - Fatigue
2 - Change in stimulus condition
3 - Alteration in physiological-motivation state
19
Q
What do we call a long-term change in behaviour that occurs because you are grown?
A
Maturation
20
Q
When does maturation occur?
A
In the absence of specific training or practice
21
Q
T or F:
The behavioural perspective believes the function of learning to be to facilitate an organism’s interactions with its environment.
A
True
22
Q
What does this definition refer to :
Refers to all of the actions of an organism at a particular time.
A
Performance
23
Q
T or F :
We control as many factors as possible to confirm that observed behavior reflects learning and not performance
A
True
24
Q
T or F
Performance and learning are completely similar
A
False. Similar but not the same.
25
Describe latent behaviour.
Involves an individual making a delayed response to a presented stimulus.
26
What did the Tokman & Honzik study in 1930 demonstrate?
We have to rely on the behavioral change but, we must ensure that the organism wants to display the behavioral change to indicate learning.
All rats were capable of learning the maze at the same speed; the only difference was their display of that performance. If there is no motivation for a group to display what they learnt, they will not display it, but learning has still occurred.
27
What three groups were in the Tokman & Honzik (1930) study?
HNR (Hungry not reinforced)
HR (Hungry Reinforced)
HNR-R (Hungry not Rewarded, then Rewarded)
28
In Tokman & Honzik (1930) study, what changed in the HNR-R group causing them to rapidly improve?
Motivation
29
What is the behavioural definition of learning?
“Learning is a relatively long-lasting change in the mechanism of behaviour, or behaviour potential, that occurs as a result of practice or experience"
30
T or F:
Definition of learning was modified to reflect findings like latent learning?
True
31
What study reflected findings of latent learning?
Tokman & Honzik (1930)
32
T or F:
Animal models mimic human behaviour.
False.
Animal models do not mimic human behaviour but can observe similarities.
33
In this study, how does this help use animal models of behaviour to generalize to humans?
"Researchers give the rat a very basic behaviour (lever pressing). When they press the lever they get the nicotine, when they don’t, they don’t receive any nicotine. We will measure how many times they press the lever."
Self-administration in the rats, accurately reflecting smoking behaviour in humans.
34
What kind of science is learning ?
Experimental Science
35
Who created the General-Process Approach ?
Thorndike
36
What does the general-process approach tell us about learning?
We can study any animal because they behave similarly within their environment.
They differ only by what stimuli they specifically respond to.
37
What replaces Thorndike's view now on universal rules of learning?
Laws of Exercise and Effect
38
What two types of validity constitute a good animal model?
Construct Validity
Criterion Validity
39
Define construct validity
How accurate are your measurements measuring what you want to measure
40
Define criterion validity
How good we are at taking what we learnt in the laboratory setting and generalizing it to apply to real-world situations.
41
True or False:
Criterion validity refers to the generalizability of results.
True
42
If you are doing research on animals that are not treated well, what validity does it affect?
Criterion Validity
43
List the empirical advantages of using non-human animals in expirements
1) Can study the neurobiological substrates of learning and memory
2) Can ask questions about human behaviour that cannot be studied in humans
44
"All that matters is experience" refers to what concept in philosophy?
Empiricism
45
What do we call the belief that humans are shaped primarily by their biological inheritance?
Nativism
46
Who proposed that knowledge and talent are matters of training and experience, not inheritance?
And what concept does this refer to?
Aristotle, Empiricism
47
Who proposed that we are born with innate differences in skill and talent, and suggested sorting by quality soon after birth?
And what concept does this refer to?
Plato, Nativism
48
Who proposed that most of our knowledge in innate, the mind did not function in a predictable and orderly manner and that voluntary and involuntary behaviour existed?
Descartes
49
Was Descartes a nativist or empiricist ?
Nativist
50
Who proposed that we are born a blank slates (tabula rasa), completely equal and without innate knowledge, and that all our habits and skills are due to experience?
John Locke
51
Who took issue with Descartes' and suggested that all ideas are acquired through experiences after birth?
John Locke
52
Who accepted the distinction between voluntary and involuntary while believing that the mind operated like a reflex?
Hobbs
53
Who believed that behaviour was governed by principle of hedonism?
Hobbs
54
T or F:
Descartes believed that humans and animals have reflexes but out voluntary behaviour set us apart.
True
55
Who considered free will and voluntary behaviour are uniquely human attributes because humans have a mind or soul.
Rene Descartes
56
Who was the first to suggest reflex ?
Descartes
57
Involuntary behaviour was described as an automatic reaction to external stimuli and is mediated by a special mechanism called a reflex, according to what?
cartesian dualism
58
T or F
According to Cartesian Dualism, voluntary behaviour had to be triggered by external stimuli and occurs because of the person’s conscious intent to act in that particular manner
False. It does not have to be triggered.
59
True or False
Descartes suggested the reflex arc we know today.
False.
He believed that sensory messages going from sense organs to the brain and motor messages going from the brain to the muscles travelled along the same nerves
60
Who suggested that the stimulus in a reflex is detected by sense organs, and it then agitates ‘animal spirits’ that travel up the nerves to the ‘mind’ via the pineal gland?
Descartes
61
Who considered all reflexive movements to be innate and to be fixed by the anatomy of the nervous system, and was wrong?
Descartes
62
What do we call any kind of behaviour (innate or learned) that is demonstrated by (or drawn out of an organism) in response to a stimulus?
Elicited behaviour
63
The Top-Down Processing demonstrates what form of behaviour?
elicited behaviour
64
What are the three types of reflexes
1) simple reflexes
2) Complex Behavioural Sequences
3) MAPs
65
Can elicited behaviour be innate or learned?
Yes
66
What defines a reflex?
When the presentation of the stimulus reliably triggers the response, and the response rarely occurs without the stimulus.
67
What reaction does a baby have in the moro reflex ?
Arms and legs go out
68
What is the eliciting stimulus in the baby when they have moro reflex?
The feeling of falling
69
What is rooting?
Head turning
70
What do we call the reflex when you touch a baby's palm and they clench their fist?
Grasp
71
What do we call the reflex where we stroke a baby's foot, and their toes curl?
Babinski
72
Why don’t we have anything in crib with the baby?
Respiratory Occlusion Reflex
73
What reflex does this describe:
"Reduced airflow pull head back, wipe hands in front of face, cry"
Respiratory Occlusion Reflex
74
What do we call the most complex of the complex reflexes
MAPs (Modal Action Patterns)
75
What type of reflex are these : feeding, mating, social behaviours, territorial defence, aggression, prey capture?
MAPS
76
What is one of the earliest identified MAPS?
Egg-Rolling MAP of the Goose
77
What do we call orderly sequences of reflexive behaviour typical of a particular species or group of related species (chain reaction) ?
Modal Action Patterns (MAPS)
78
Give an example of the same MAP but different behavior?
Cat + Chicken still fast moving prey
79
What do we call it when the same species will react in the same way?
Intraspecies similarities
80
What do we call it when species share similar MAPS, but differences in what the specific responses are ?
Intraspecies differences
81
What does the Tinbergen & Perdeck (1950) study of Bill-Pecking show?
We could amplify certain stimuli (something that is not found naturally called supernormal stimulus) to evoke even more of a reflex.
82
What was the supernormal stimulus in the Bill-Pecking study by Tinbergen & Perdeck (1950)?
Maximize features of the beak
83
What are MAPs in animal's highly dependent on?
philosophical state of the animal
84
T or F:
MAPs is a type of goal-directed behaviour.
True
85
What behaviour in MAPs is early in the behavior sequence?
Appetitive Behavior
86
What behaviour occurs late in the behaviour sequence in MAPs?
Consummatory Behavior
87
What behaviour in MAPs is the classified as the interaction with ‘goal’ to achieve the goal ?
Consummatory Behaviour
88
What does this represent:
"One squirrel runs up every tree, one squirrel runs up the same tree multiple times. Looking for food, so they make strategies to be closer to their goal. They are in proximal location to their goal"
Appetitive Behavior
89
What does this represent:
"if its food the goal, it is the act of eating the food. Two squirrels might have different strategies to find the food, but when they do, they consume the food the exact same way"
Consummatory Behavior
90
T or F:
Pure MAPs are very common in humans.
False. Few pure MAPs in human.
91
What is one example of a MAP that is consistent across species and once the behaviour is started it is hard to stop?
Yawning
92
Who proposed in tabula rasa?
John Locke
93
Who said that sensations are combined to form complex ideas by the process of associations ?
Locke
94
T or F :
Empiricists performed experiments
False
95
What are the three rules in primary rules of association?
1) Rule of Contiguity
2) Rule of Similarity
3) Rule of Contrast
96
What does this represent:
"You experienced throughout your life that peanut butter and jelly go together and they are experienced together over and over again. If you encounter the smell of jelly with peanut butter often enough, your memory of peanut butter will be activated by the smell of jelly."
Rule of Contiguity (Primary Rules of Association)
97
What rule of association does this refer to :
"if two events repeatedly occur together in space or time, they will become associated"
Rule of Contiguity
98
What rule of association does this refer to :
"association formed if two things are similar"
Rule of Similarity
99
What rule of association does this refer to :
"association formed if two things are different"
Rule of Contrast
100
Which of the three rules of primary association suggested by Hobbs does not hold up in actuality?
Rule of Contrast
101
What set of rules suggests that the association between two stimuli depended on the intensity and frequency of those stimuli, or how recently they were paired together?
Secondary Rules
102
Who proposed the secondary rules?
Thomas Brown
103
Name the three rules or the secondary rules by Brown.
1) Intensity of sensation/events
2) Recency of association
3) Frequency of events being paired
104
T or F:
Empirical investigations of the mechanisms of associations did not begin until the work of Descartes.
Did not begin until Ebbinghaus
105
Who proposed that experience links ideas in the mind, meaning that remembering one idea would spread along links, retrieving a complex episode?
William James
106
What does this describe ?
"one night you go to a dinner party. You taste the food, have sight of your date, you smell her perfume, and many topics of conversation. This is all experienced at this event. At another event, you go dancing but with the same date. She will produce similar aspects that are going to be shared (sight of her and her perfume) because those components were experienced at events 1 and 2, they may become linked together in your mind."
Rules of Mind
107
Who founded associationism?
Aristotle
108
Who elaborated associationism ?
Locke and James
109
Who invented nonsense syllables: three-letter combinations devoid of any meaning?
Ebbinghaus
110
Why did Ebbinghaus study a list of nonsense words?
So that there is no prior influence of him learning that list of words.
111
What type of psychology did Ebbinghaus introduce?
Experimental Psychology
112
T or F:
Ebbinghaus studied memory in an empirical, experimental and quantitative fashion.
True
113
Who did Ebbinghaus study for his reaserch?
Himself
114
What did the Exponential forgetting curve show in Ebbinghaus results ?
Rapid initial forgetting, but progressively less forgetting with time
115
What are the five principals of behaviourism?
1) Focus on behaviour
2) Empiricism
3) Evolutionary Perspective
4) Quantitative
5) Law of Effect
116
T or F:
Behaviourists agreed with Freud and came about to prove his theories.
False.
117
T or F :
Behaviorists argued that mental processes are not only subjective but also irrelevant: given the stimulus, the response can be predicted without worrying about what goes on in the mind.
True
118
Who is said to be the reign of behaviorism?
Tolman
119
What did Tolman's blocker in the rat maze study demonstrate?
The rat has a cognitive map, a mental layout of the maze, even though they had not navigated their environment prior.
120
What did Tolman find after maze blocking study as a general concensus?
Exclusive focus on stimulus and response is too narrow.
121
Who name the behaviorism movement?
Watson
122
Which behaviourist focused on mathematical models of learning?
Hull
123
Which behaviorist became a leading public intellectual, and was the first to focus on lab coats?
Skinner
124
Who formulated the dualistic view of human behaviour known as Cartesian Dualism
Rene Descartes
125
T or R:
Descartes recognized that people do things automatically in response to external stimuli
True.
126
What did Descartes call involuntary behaviour?
Reflexive
127
T or F:
Descartes believed that a reaction such as removing your hand from a hot stove was caused by the reflex arc.
False. Descartes believed that only one set of nerves was involved in rapid reactions to external stimuli.
128
Who considered voluntary, conscious actions and free will to be uniquely human attributes?
Descartes
129
What two intellectual traditions did the mind-body dualism stimulate (Descartes)?
mentalism (contexts and working of the mind) and reflexology (mechanisms of reflexive behaviour)
130
Who believed that the mind and body was connected by way of the pineal gland, and therefore, some of the contents of the mind came from sense experiences?
Descartes
131
Descartes also believed that humans were born with the concept of God, concept of self and axioms of geometry.
What philosophical approach does this reflect?
Nativism
132
What is the philosophical approach to the contents of the mind?
Empiricism
133
Who proposed the alternative to Descartes belief that the mind did not function in a predictable and orderly manner?
Hobbs
134
Hobbs proposed that the that voluntary behaviour was governed by what principle?
Hedonism (people do things in pursuit of happiness and avoidance of pain)
135
Define Hedonism
People do things in pursuit of happiness and avoidance of pain
136
Who set the primary rules?
Aristotle
137
Explain the rule of contiguity in Aristotle's (Hobbs) primary rules of association.
If two events repeatedly occur together in space or time, they will become linked or associated.
138
Explain the rule of similarity in Aristotle's (Hobbs) primary rules of association
Association formed if two things are similar.
139
What rule does this refer to :
"He proposed that the association between two stimuli depended on the intensity of those stimuli and how frequently or recently the stimuli occurred together"
Secondary Rules by Thomas Brown
140
Name the three rules in the formation of an association based on the Secondary Rules by Brown
1. Intensity of Stimuli (stronger better)
2. Recency of association (more recent better)
3. Frequency of events being paired (paired tgt more)
141
Who studied how associations are formed?
Ebbinghaus
142
What did Ebbinghaus invent and explain the concept.
Nonsense syllables.
Three-letter combinations with no meaning, accounting for possible interference in easily remembering the words.
143
From Ebbinghaus' expirement he found wether a syllable became more strongly associated with the next one on the list, which is called?
Forward Association
144
From Ebbinghaus' expirement he found wether a syllable became more strongly associated with the last one on the list, which is called?
Backward Association
145
Who formulated the concept of a reflex?
Descartes
146
Who proposed that
Behaviour can reflect a triggering stimulus
Descartes
147
T or F:
Descartes believed that nerves were hollow tubes, and neural transmission involved the movement of gases, called animal spirits, which were released by the pineal gland.
True.
148
T or F:
Descartes passed away and all of his theories regarding reflex were proven true.
False. They are all wrong
149
Did Descartes consider all reflexive movement to be innate or reaction and experience?
Innate and fixed by the anatomy of the nervous system
150
Who showed that separate nerves are involved in the transmission of sensory information from sense organs to the CNS and motor information from the CNS to muscles?
Charles Bell & Francois Magendie
151
What did Swammerdam's experiment demonstrated the mechanical irritation of a nerve being sufficient to produce a muscle contraction disprove?
Descartes idea about animal spirits in reflexes.
152
Who proposed that stimuli did not elicit reflex responses directly in all cases?
Sechenov
153
A small piece of dust in your nose can elicit a large response like a sneeze.
What does this represent according to Sechenov?
A stimulus could release a response from inhibition, meaning a very faint stimulus could produce a large response.
154
Not all reflexes are innate was shown by _________.
Pavlov
155
Who were both concerned with establishing laws of associations through empirical research?
Ebbinghaus and Pavlov
156
Who argued that the human mind is a product of evolution, suggesting that nonhuman animals had the same capacities as us, contrary to Descartes beliefs ?
Darwin
157
What studies examine topics such as perception, attention, spacial representation, memory, problem solving, categorization, tool use, and counting in nonhuman animals?
Comparative Psychology/Cognition
158
T or F:
Pavlov was first committed to the topic of nervism such as the neural mechanisms of digestion until research came out countering his studies. He switched from digestive physiology to studying the conditioning of new reflexes.
True.
159
What are relevant features or functions in the animal model?
The important parts that we are studying or want to understand in humans, in order to be able to classify external factors as irrelevant.
160
T or F :
The critical task in constructing a successful animal model is to identify the relevant points of similarity between the animal model and the human behaviour of interest.
True
161
This refers to what concept in the animal model:
"The critical task in constructing a successful animal model is to identify the relevant points of similarity between the animal model and the human behaviour of interest"
Identify relevant features or functions
162
Why is learning defined in terms of a change in the mechanisms of behavior?
To emphasize the distinction between learning and performance (all of the actions of an organism at a particular time)
163
Name three mechanisms that produce change in behaviour that are too short-lasting to be considered instances of learning.
1) Fatigue
2) Change in stimulus condition
3) Alteration in physiological or motivational state
164
Explain fatigue as an instance of change in behaviour that is not learning.
Physical exertion (doing it too many times) may result in a gradual reduction in the vigour of a response because an individual becomes tired.
165
Explain "change in stimulus condition" as an instance of change in behaviour that is not learning.
Change in the environment.
If the house lights in a movie theatre suddenly turn on in the middle of the show, the behaviour of the audience is likely to change dramatically.
166
Explain "Alteration in the physiological-motivational state " as an instance of behaviour change that is not learning.
Hunger and thirst induce responses that are not observed at other times.
167
Name one long-term change in behaviour that is not an instance of learning, and explain it.
Maturation.
This is when some behaviours change because you are grown, you can acquire or lose them
Example: A child cannot get something from a high shelf until he grows tall enough
168
The behavioural learning mechanism looks at what level of investigation?
The whole organism
169
What do we call changes in learning that occur as a function of age?
Developmental changes
170
What are the two methodological aspects of the study of learning
1) Learning as an Experimental Science
2) The General-Process Approach
171
"To identify a cause, an experiment has to be conducted in which the presumed cause is removed. The results obtained with and without the presumed cause are then compared"
What does this reflect?
Learning as an Experimental Science
172
T or F:
Learning can be studied through observation.
False.
We can learn about livelihood, how they interact and engage this way.
173
When is learning presumed to have occurred in an experimental science?
If the experimental group responds differently from the control group.
174
What does the General-Process Approach as methodological feature of studies of learning tell us?
We can study any animal because they behave similarly within their environment, they differ only by what they specifically respond to
175
Who clearly expressed the idea of universality in learning as elemental laws of association?
Thorndike
176
Who clearly expressed that the rules of learning were universal ?
Thorndike
177
T or F:
With human participants, scientists can study how strong emotional reactions are learned and how learning is involved in acquiring food, avoiding pain or distress or finding potential sexual partners.
False. Only can be done with nonhuman animals.
178
T or F :
We cannot experimentally manipulate how emotions are learned in the first place, like in nonhuman animals.
True.
179
What study was done in response to the claim that
"domesticated strains of laboratory animals may not provide useful information because of degeneration over the years and inbreeding"
Boice (1977) conducted an eperiement with 5 male rats and 5 ablino rats (inbred) and housed them in a freezing pen, all 10 rats survived.
180
T or F:
The welfare of the nonhuman animals does not matter in behavioural studies .
False. It does especially in behavioural studies, because then the results are not valid.
181
T or F:
Computer stimulations can be used to generate new, unknown facts about behaviour.
False.
182
