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Archaeology 201 > Midterm Exam #2 > Flashcards

Midterm Exam #2 Flashcards

1
Q

Geoarchaeology

A

study, through application of geological principles and methods, of soils, sediments, landforms and stratigraphy in order to investigate archaeological sites and to answer archaeological questions regarding human activity in the past

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2
Q

Sediments

A

inorganic and organic component of the earth’s surface deposited by natural processes

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3
Q

Soils

A

in situ developmental sequences

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4
Q

A Horizon

A

zone of accumulation and elluviation

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5
Q

B Horizon

A

zone of deposition/illuviation

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6
Q

C Horizon

A

Parent material
paleosols/buried A Horizons

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7
Q

Matrix

A

Physical substance surrounding an archaeological find

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8
Q

Provenance

A

3D position of an object within the matrix

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9
Q

Association

A

2/more archaeological items (artifacts, ecofacts, features/fossils) occurring together within the same matrix

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10
Q

Primary Context

A

context of the original context of the find, undisturbed by any factor

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11
Q

Secondary Context

A

context the context of a find whose primary context has been disturbed by later activity

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12
Q

Systematic Context

A

manufacture, use, re-use, and discard

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13
Q

Archaeological Context

A

artifacts continue to be affected by human action and natural processes

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14
Q

Taphonomy

A

The study of the processes of site disturbance and destruction
An understanding of site taphonomy can help an archaeologist make an informed and cautious interpretation of the past

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15
Q

How Does a Site Get Interred?

A

Abandonment and Rotting plant matter

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16
Q

Unconformities

A

Natural geological deposits separating 2 occupational strata
Indicate abandonment
Silt from a river flood
Windblown sand
Volcanic ash

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17
Q

Site Formation Processes - Natural Transformation

A

Decomposition
Flooding
Volcanos
Earthquakes

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18
Q

Site Formation Processes - Cultural Transformation

A

Discarding
Recycling
Curation
Deliberate and Accidental Destruction

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19
Q

Relative Dating Methods

A

Used to date artifacts, features/geological deposits in relation to 1 another

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20
Q

Absolute Dating Methods

A

Used to measure how old a specimen/deposit on a fixed calendric system

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21
Q

Complicating Factors - Stratigraphy

A

Mixing: Digging operations turn dirt over and leave it in place in the deposit created by the digging
Filling: A depositional unit is laid down to alter the original level of the ground
Collection: The acquisition and reuse of ancient objects.
Unconformities: Temporal breaks in the stratigraphic sequence as a result of a change that caused deposition to cease for a period of time

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22
Q

Seriation

A

chronological ordering of a group of artifacts/assemblages where the most similar are placed adjacent to each other in a series
Battleship Curves:
Frequency seriation: Measures changes in the proportional abundance, or frequency, observed among finds (e.g. counts of tools/ceramic types)

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23
Q

Absolute Dating Method - Historical Objects

A

Uses objects of known historical age to date other archaeological finds
Doesn’t account for shelf life/reuse - date of manufacture not date of use
Historical documents
Works on: previously documented items

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24
Q

Absolute Dating Method - Dendrochronology

A

A dating method that matches the annual growth rings of an archaeologically recovered wood sample to an established temporal sequence
Complicating factors: not always annual, not all trees have rings, habitat, old wood problem (only marks day when tree was cut down, doesn’t tell if it was used - cultural use)

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25
Q

Absolute Dating Method - Radiocarbon (C14) Dating

A

A dating method that uses the decay of carbon-14 to date organic remains
Most commonly used
Complicating Factors: Limited in more recent materials (pollution), only up till 1980
Works on:
Wood, charcoal, ivory, plants, shell, bone, and other organics - anything with significant amount of carbon collectant

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26
Q

Absolute Dating Method - Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Dating

A

A newer, more accurate form of Radiocarbon dating - gives smaller range of date
Accelerates ions to high energies before mass analysis (several percent the speed of light)

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26
Q

Absolute Dating Method - Uranium Series Dating

A

Measures the decay of uranium isotopes found in calcium carbonate deposits
Uranium (235U and 238U) decays into other isotopes (such as 230Th, thorium).
Works on:
Limestone bedrock, cave deposits (stalagmites, flow stone)
Finds between 50,000 and 1 million years old

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26
Q

Absolute Dating Method - Thermoluminescence Dating

A

Thermoluminescence dating reheats samples to emit photons
Measures trapped electrons in surrounding radioactive material – annual dose radiation in sediment - to determine calendric age
Only works on objects that were heated in the past, can’t date recent items either

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26
Q

Absolute Dating Method - Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL)

A

Dates soils based on accumulation of trapped electrons
Works for sediments without organic materials

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27
Q

Absolute Dating Method - Potassium-Argon (K-AR) Dating

A

Uses the rate of decay of a radioactive form of potassium (40K) into argon (40 Ar).- 50,000-2000000000000
Works on: the minerals and rocks surrounding a fossil
Does not date the fossil itself

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28
Q

Absolute Dating Method - Fission-Track Dating

A

Measures the number of uranium fission tracks in a sample (narrow trails of damage)
Works on:
Volcanic rocks (obsidian, basalt)
Finds between 100,000 and 20 million years old

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29
Q

A working plan for a Research project

A

Multiple objectives.
Multiple stages.
Logistics.
Budget.
Used as the basis for grants and permits.
In CRM projects, the research design often incorporates recommended courses of action to mitigate damage caused by construction work and other non-archaeological activities

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30
Q

Conservation

A

process of treating artifacts, ecofacts, and in some cases even features, to stop decay and, if possible, reverse the deterioration process

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31
Q

Approaches to Archaeological Survey - Non-probabilistic (Judgmental)

A

Targeting of specific areas by the excavator in a non-random manner.
Results cannot be used to generalize

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32
Q

Approaches to Archaeological Survey - Probabilistic (Random) sampling

A

Uses random sampling techniques.
Makes generalizations derived from the sample based on mathematical models

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33
Q

Simple Random Sampling

A

Simplest form of probabilistic sampling

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34
Q

Stratified Random Sampling

A

Used when the survey area isn’t geographically uniform

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35
Q

Systematic Sampling

A

Choose 1 unit at random, and then selects others at equal intervals from the 1st one

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36
Q

Systematic Unaligned Sampling

A

Combines the characteristics of simple random sampling and systematic sampling into a single strategy

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37
Q

Problems With Sampling

A

Sample fraction
Surface visibility – shovel testing
Deeply buried sites
Accessibility
Results – density of sites only

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38
Q

Locating Sites - Traditional Methods

A

Check old maps, aerial photographs
Talk to local people
Pedestrian survey - look for surface artifacts, check exposures, dig shovel tests

39
Q

Locating Sites - Problems

A

Prior experience
Emphasis on highly visible sites
Judgemental (usually)
Failure to include all areas used by people
Landscape change? Culture change?
Biased sample of sites

40
Q

Basic Types of Archaeological Survey - Reconnaissance Survey

A

preliminary examination of a survey area

41
Q

Basic Types of Archaeological Survey - Intensive Survey

A

systematic, detailed field survey that covers an entire area

42
Q

Methods to Ground Survey

A

Quadrants
Transects
Opportunistic sampling

43
Q

Surface Sampling Methods - Surface Collection

A

Gathers representative samples of artifacts from the surface

44
Q

Subsurface Sampling Methods

A

Shovel Tests: Shallow holes of a proscribed size and depth are made with a shovel
Auger/Core Borer: Hand-operated/power tool
Backhoe Testing

45
Q

Mapping: Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

A

Revolutionized the storage and display of cartographic data
Uses GPS (Global Positioning System) data to render points, lines and polygons in 3D space

46
Q

2 Types - Mapping: Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

A

Total station
Base station and handheld receiver

47
Q

Remote Sensing

A

The non-destructive techniques used to generate archaeological data without excavation
The science of identifying, observing, interpreting and measuring objects or surfaces without coming into direct contact with them
The use of some form of electromagnetic energy to detect and measure characteristics of an archaeological target (your textbooks definition)

48
Q

Aerial Remote Sensing Methods - Google Earth (GE)

A

You’d be surprised how many sites have been found on Google Earth! There are even crowdsourcing projects to look at Google Earth imagery and find sites

49
Q

Aerial Remote Sensing Methods - Aerial Photography

A

Look for shadow Marks, crop marks, soil marks, among other things
Can also use infrared, false color photographs, muti-spectral imagery, etc.

50
Q

Aerial Remote Sensing Methods - Non-photographic methods

A

Satellite Sensor Imagery
Aircraft-Borne Sensor Imagery
Sideways-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR)
LiDAR

51
Q

LANDSAT 7

A

Satellite launched in 1999
Single nadir-pointing instrument
Sun-synchronous
Orbits 705 km above the earth, with a swath width of 185 km
Revisits the same area every 16 days, generating 250 images per day
8 bands
Band 6 is thermal infrared
Band 8 is panchromatic

52
Q

Infrared Satellite Imaging

A

Most satellites have multiple bands that capture different wavelengths
Visual
Infrared
Multispectral
Computer programs can create false color images of particular bands
ERDAS
ArcGIS
Hidden features may become visible
Changes in vegetation, crop marks

53
Q

LiDAR Mapping

A

Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)
Pulsing laser (usually mounted on an aircraft) – short wavelength in narrow beams
Measures distance based on the time it takes for a pulse of light to reach the target and return

54
Q

Ground-Penetrating Radar

A

Non-invasive survey
Radar pulses are sent into the earth. These are reflected at different rates depending on the density of sub-surface features
Creates a 3D subsurface “map”

55
Q

Gradient Magnetometry

A

Measures near-surface magnetic fields. Looking for differences in magnetism in the subsurface strata
Relatively wide application: Measures magnetic anomalies caused by human activity

56
Q

What does magnetometry data look like?

A

Intense dipoles (neg and positive, black and white) are usually metal objects.
Hearths usually appear as circular, less intense areas of high magnetism

57
Q

Soil Restivity

A

instrument passes current through the soil
measures electrical resistance caused by buried artifacts and features
presence of ground water and compaction of soil can affect results

58
Q

Benefits of Remote Sensing

A

Archaeological excavation is destructive
Remote sensing can help plan excavation strategies

59
Q

Consultation

A

Aboriginal Consultation Office
Project specific consultation
Mandate process, steps
Alberta Culture, Multiculturalism and the Status of Women
Site specific consultation for Historic Resources
Typically the HRV 4cs

60
Q

Obtain Permissions

A

First Nations communities
Permit from government agencies
Permission from land owner

61
Q

Deciding What to Dig

A

Research question?
Resources available and other logistical considerations?
Nature of the site and the deposits?

62
Q

Deciding How to Dig

A

Research question?
Resources available and other logistical considerations?
Establish the nature of the site
Establish site’s horizontal limits
Establish the site’s vertical limit

63
Q

Testing

A

tests of varying sizes
distributed along the main axes of the grid
excavated in various ways
matrix may be screened or trowel sorted
Then excavation

64
Q

Controlling Horizontal Space

A

Cartesian coordinate system–Two- or three-dimensional grid
Datum– a reference point for a grid or a map.
Site datum–A stable , arbitrary reference point.
Grid unit–A specific square on the Cartesian coordinate system

65
Q

Controlling Vertical Space

A

Levels are used to divide up vertical space
1. Natural levels – based on stratigraphy
2. Artificial levels – based on an arbitrary measurement

66
Q

Documentation

A

All deposits must be recorded in 3 dimensions.
Plans and profiles
Levels
Point-plotting of special finds
Photographs

67
Q

Special Excavation Issues

A

Occasionally archaeologists face unexpected and exciting challenges that require special excavation techniques
Fragile Objects
Burials
Structures and Pits

68
Q

Methods: Vertical Trenches/Testing

A

Used on mounds/temples, deep deposits
Reveals the full sequence of occupation/construction.
Strategically placed to reveal the maximum amount of information

69
Q

Methods: Horizontal (Area) Excavation

A

Block excavations – bigger windows
Establishes a grid over a selected large area of the site
Uses the grid to establish horizontal spatial controls through the excavation of individual units within the grid

70
Q

Why Classify Artifacts?

A

Organizing Data into Manageable Units
Describing Types
Identifying Relationships between Types
Studying Assemblage Variability in the Archaeological Record
Essentially, classifying artifacts gives us an organizational framework for synthesizing archaeological data

71
Q

What Can We Learn From Categorizing Artifacts?

A

Site chronology
Exchange patterns
Ancient technologies
Class differences
Expressions of political power
Religious beliefs/practices
Diet and health
Gendered behaviors

72
Q

How Do We Classify Artifacts?

A

Taxonomy - the name given to the system of classifying concepts, materials, objects, and phenomena used in many sciences, including archaeology
Typology - a system of classification based on the construction of types
Attributes: a particular feature of an artifact
Typology includes distinctive artifacts displaying variation in time and space. The classification of things according to their physical attributes.
Morphological type: a group of artifacts of similar form
Functional type: a group of artifacts serving similar functions
Temporal type: a group of comparable artifacts showing systematic changes through time

73
Q

Diagnostic Artifacts

A

Temporal type: a group of comparable artifacts showing systematic changes through time
Diagnostic artifacts are indicative of a particular time period or cultural group. So these are key markers for archaeologists in how we interpret sites, as they allow us to pinpoint relatively specific periods of time when they were produced (commonly projectile points, pottery styles, etc)

74
Q

Attributes

A

minimal characteristic of an artifact such that it cannot be further subdivided; attributes commonly studied include aspects of form, style, decoration, color, manufacturing technology, and raw material

75
Q

Types of Attributes

A

Formal attributes – Attributes defined by features such as the shape of the artifact, its measurable dimensions and its components
Stylistic attributes – Attributes defined by the surface characteristics of artifacts – color, texture, decoration, and so forth – leading to stylistic typologies.
Technological attributes – Attributes consisting of raw material characteristics including overall shape, the shape of parts, and measurable dimensions – leading to form typologies

76
Q

Technology

A

set of techniques and the body of information that provide ways to convert raw materials into tools, to procure and process food, to construct and locate food and so on.
Technology allows humans to exploit their environment

77
Q

Assemblage

A

collection of artifacts of 1 or several classes of materials (e.g. stone tools, ceramics, bones) that comes from a defined context such as a site, feature or stratum

78
Q

Component

A

archaeological unit consisting of a stratum or set of strata that are presumed to be culturally homogeneous

79
Q

Phase

A

series of components within a restricted geographical area sharing 1 or more distinctive archaeological types. Spatially and temporally limited

80
Q

Occupation

A

assemblage of cultural material resulting from one use of a site by a human group (or a series of very closely spaced uses that are archaeological inseparable)

81
Q

Why do we reconstruct reduction sequences?

A

If lithic debitage can be matched with the stage of the reduction sequence in which it was produced, we can reconstruction the spatial organization of tool manufacturing, use and reworking

82
Q

Stages of Lithic Reduction

A

Acquire raw material
Primary/early stage reduction
1) Core preparation
2) Initial reduction
Secondary reduction
1) Trimming, thinning and shaping
2) Preparation of preforms/tool blanks
Tertiary reduction
1) Final finishing/shaping of tool
2) Resharpening/modification of too

83
Q

Primary/Early Stage Flakes

A

Flakes from earliest stages of breaking open raw material and preparing cores
Often 50-100% dorsal cortex
Large in size
Limited dorsal and platform scarring

84
Q

Secondary Stage Flakes

A

Shaping and thinning of flakes to create tool blanks
Lots of variation
Medium in size/thickness
Shaping – broad; thinning - long
Platforms still fairly simple, more dorsal scarring (generally)
No cortex

85
Q

Late/Tertiary Stage Flakes

A

Final stages of tool production – sharpening and resharpening of stone tools
Small
Multifaceted platform, angled lip
Complex scarring on platform; can be complex on dorsal surface but depends on size
Resharpening flakes have use wear on platform

86
Q

Lithic Raw Materials

A

Identification and sourcing of materials used for the production of stone tools is important in order to better understand the knapping process (including acquisition and stone selection), settlement patterns, seasonal migration, cultural contact, trade networks, economics, and ethnicity
The best raw materials for chipped stone tools are fine grained (micro or crypto crystalline)
Identify raw materials through macroscopic and/or microscopic assessment of characteristics such as color, luster, texture, translucency

87
Q

Obsidian

A

Extrusive, igneous, fast cooling rock
Volcanic glass
Comes from a number of sources – most common in Alberta are Obsidian Cliff (Wymoning) and Bear Gulch (Idaho), but there are also sources in Oregon (Glass Buttes), British Columbia (Mt. Edziza) and Alaska, among others.
Can be sourced to a specific volcano using XRF analysis
An obsidian flake is sharper than surgical steel

88
Q

Massive Quartz

A

Coarsely crystalline quartz silicate
Large grain/crystal size
Fractures along facets
Multiple sources
Secondary alluvial deposits and glacial tills
Quarries in southern BC and Montana
Banff National Park

89
Q

Knife River Flint

A

Chert silicate formed when silica replaced organic material in a North Dakota peat deposit 30-60 million years ago
Not actually flint (brown chalcedony)
Can have visible plant microfossils
Distinctive white patina with blueish tinge
Fluoresces faint orange under black light
Quarried from secondary deposits in North Dakota’s Dunn and Mercer counties
Widely used on the Plains

90
Q

Swan River Chert

A

Chert silicate which ranges from gray to white and looks like curdled milk
Often heat treated – turns pink
Distinct vugs (irregularly shaped holes) and microfossiol inclusions
Outcrops in Swan River Valley, west-central Manitoba
Secondary deposits in gravels in alluvial and glacial deposits in southern Saskatchewan and Alberta, at least as far west as Medicine Hat

91
Q

Montana Cherts

A

Chert silicate
Most are yellow/brown in color with black dendrites/inclusions
Avon and Madison Chert are exceptions – white/grey and creamy
Highly variable – come from a number of quarry sources in Montana, most near Helena (a few further west)

92
Q

Etherington Chert

A

Chert silicate
aWhite to light gray, purples, mottled
Blocky, not as fine grained
Nodules in the Livingstone range of southern Alberta

93
Q

Pebble Chert

A

Pebble sized chert silicate nodules
All sorts of colors
Outcrops in Alberta (Neutral Hills) and Montana
Also found in secondary alluvial and glacial deposits
Often subject to bipolar reduction

94
Q

Chalcedony

A

Silicate composed of quartz and moganite
Translucent/slightly translucent
Many colors
Cryptocrystalline
In secondary deposits all over the place

95
Q

Petrified Wood

A

Wood fossilized by replacement of organic material with silica
Cellular structure of the wood often still visible
Clear banding which tends to platy layers
Fractures follow wood grain which produces tabular flakes and stepped terminations
Yellows, browns, dark red
Relatively common in secondary deposits on the Northwestern Plains

96
Q

Silicified Siltstone

A

Siltstone with high amounts of silica bound through metamorphosis, which bind the particles together
Larger grain size than cherts - can see individual grains with naked eye or hand lens
Lots of variability, found in secondary deposits all over
There are a few identifiable types (i.e., Banff Chert, which is actually a silicified siltstone)

97
Q

Porcellanite

A

Mixture of silty clay and carbonaceous deposits silicified with a large amount of silica
Can occur above and below burned coal seams
Ceramic like
Less hard and dense than chert
Medium to dark grey or red, black
Large outcrops of high-quality porcellanite occur in southern Montana

98
Q

Quartzite

A

Metamorphosed sandstone
Individual sand grands are firmly cemented together and clearly visible
Course to very course grained
Commonly used lithic raw material on the North Plains
Lots of variability in color, grain size
Cobbles found in secondary alluvial deposits throughout the Northern Plains

Archaeology 201 (7 decks)

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