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Honors Bio > Midterm Chapters:3,4,5,6 > Flashcards

Midterm Chapters:3,4,5,6 Flashcards

1
Q

Explain why carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, diverse molecules.

A

It has 4 valence electrons so it can make 4 bonds

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2
Q

Organic Compouds

A

A chemical bond containing carbon and usually carbon

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3
Q

hydrocarbons

A

An organic compound only composed of hydrogen and carbon. The major components of petroleum and natural gas

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4
Q

carbon skeleton

A

The chain of carbon atoms that forms the structural backbone of an organic molecule.

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5
Q

isomer

A

Organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures, and therefore different properties.

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6
Q

macromolecule

A

A giant molecule formed by the joining of small molecules; usually by a dehydration reaction.

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7
Q

List the four main classes of macromolecules

A

Carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins

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8
Q

Explain the relationship between monomers and polymers

A

Monomers make up polymers which are many identical or similar building blocks strung together.

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9
Q

Compare the processes of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis

A

Dehydration synthesis is a chemical reaction in which 2 molecules become bonded together with the removal of a water molecule and hydrolysis breaks those bonds apart by the addition of water.

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10
Q

List the elements that make up carbohydrates

A

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen

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11
Q

Explain the relationship among monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides

A

Monosaccharides are just a simple sugar, disaccharides are two monosaccharides bonded together with the removal of water, and finally polysaccharides are a group of monosaccharides found in nature.

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12
Q

List other examples of monosaccharides

A

fructose, glucose, and galactose

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13
Q

List several examples of disaccharides

A

Lactose, fructose, maltose

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14
Q

Explain how disaccharides are formed (dehydration reaction) and broken down (hydrolysis).

A

One monomer gives up a hydroxyl group and the other gives up a hydrogen atom from a hydroxyl group. As H2O is released, an oxygen atom is left, linking two monomers. A disaccharide is broken down by the addition of a water molecule which splits up and a hydroxyl group goes to one monosaccharide and the hydrogen atom goes to the other monosaccharide.

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15
Q

List several examples of polysaccharides

A

chitin, starch, glycogen, cellulose

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16
Q

What is the function of starch

A

Turn into glucose and be stored for energy

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17
Q

What is the function of cellulose

A

the most abundant organic compound on earth. Cellulose is a major component of tough cell walls that surround plant cells, and is what makes plant stems, leaves, and branches so strong.

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18
Q

What is the function of glycogen

A

made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver and the muscles hydrated with three or four parts of water. Glycogen functions as the secondary long-term energy storage, with the primary energy stores being fats held in adipose tissue

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19
Q

Explain how polysaccharides are formed (dehydration reaction) and broken down (hydrolysis

A

After disaccharides are created, another reaction can undergo to form a polysaccharide.

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20
Q

List the elements that make up lipids

A

Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen

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21
Q

Explain the basic nature of all lipids.

A

they all contain nitrogen, they are all acidic when mixed with water, they are all made of fatty acids and glycerol, none of them dissolves in water, they do not have a high-energy content

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22
Q

Outline the general characteristics of fats and oils

A

hydrophobic, they all contain nitrogen, they are all made of fatty acids and glycerol, none of them dissolves in water, they do not have a high-energy content

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23
Q

Outline the importance of fats and oils to organisms

A

provide flavor, cushion the organs

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24
Q

Compare and contrast saturated and unsaturated fats/ fatty acids

A

Unsaturated fats are bent in the spine resulting in them being less dense and less compact, it can be in a liquid form. This is caused by the double bond of carbons and the bend is when the fatty acid is a cis which means the hydrogens are next to each other and repel. Trans fatty acids cause a slight bend, which is when the hydrogens are on different sides. Saturated fats are straight in the spine meaning that they can become compact and dense which means that typically it is solid. Also, unsaturated fats are healthier than saturated fats.

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25
Outline the function/ importance of steroids
Steroids can impact a number of things from your growth to sexual development. They also regulate metabolism, immune response, reproduction and other essential biological processes.
26
Describe hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids
hydrophobic phospholipids are water fearing meaning that they don't mix with water. They are found on the interior of proteins. Hydrophilic phospholipids are capable of hydrogen bonding, attracted to water, and are found on the exterior of molecules
27
Outline the functions of proteins in organisms
Some functions are their duty as enzymes which catalyze chemical reactions, necessary in animal diets since they cant synthesize all the amino acids they need, and finally many proteins are involved in the process of cell signaling and signal transduction.
28
List the essential elements that make up proteins
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen
29
Name the monomer of proteins
Amino Acids
30
Outline the importance of amino acid side chains/ R groups
The specific composition and structure of the R group determines the specific properties of each of the 20 amino acids that are found in proteins.
31
Outline the chemical nature of different amino acids
They have different functions
32
Describe peptide bond dehydration reactions and hydrolysis reactions
Cells join amino acids together in a dehydration reaction that links the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of the next amino acid as a water molecule is removed…the resulting covalent linkage is called a peptide bond.
33
Explain the importance of a protein's shape to its function
Shape determines its function
34
denaturation
A process in which a protein unravels, losing its specific structure and hence function; can be caused by changes in pH or salt concentration or by high temp. also refers to the separation of two strands of the DNA double helix, caused by similar factors
35
What is an example of an isomer
Glucose and fructose
36
Explain the consequence of denaturation to the function of proteins
Polypeptide chains unravel, losing their specific shape, and as a result, lose their function also.
37
Outline the four levels of protein structure
Primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, and quaternary structure
38
Describe how the “rules” of protein structure determine a protein’s final shape
If the protein folds incorrectly, many diseases can be caused such as alzheimers and parkinson. A proteins unique three dimensional shape determines its proper function.
39
Explain the importance of primary structure to all further levels
Even a slight change in primary structure may affect a proteins overall shape and thus its ability to function. For example, a single amino acid change in hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying blood protein causes sickle-cell disease, a serious blood disorder.
40
What is a peptide bond
The covalent bond between two amino acid units in a polypeptide formed by a dehydration reaction.
41
What are the simplest carbohydrates
monosaccharides
42
What are examples of hydrocarbon fuels
Methane and Propane
43
List 3 examples of food that have large amounts of carbohydrates in them
pasta, potato, and bread
44
What type of organism produces the large amounts of carbohydrates
plants
45
Examples of monosaccharides
Fructose, glucose, galactose
46
Examples of disaccharides
Sucrose and Lactose
47
Examples of polysaccharides
Starch and glycogen
48
What elements are present in monosaccharides
Oxygen, Hydrogen, and carbon
49
How many atoms of carbon are glucose
6
50
What is the chemical formula for monosaccharides
C6H12O6
51
What is the ratio of carbon atoms to hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms in monosaccharides
1:2:1
52
What makes simple sugars different
Their structure and taste
53
Glucose, Fructose, and galactose are isomers meaning that they are the identical in composition but different in...
Structure
54
Glucose and glucose form
maltose
55
glucose and fructose form
sucrose
56
glucose and galactose form
disaccharide
57
What needs to be removed from the monosaccharides so that they can combine to form a disaccharide
OH and H
58
What new compound is formed in addition to a new disaccharide
water
59
What is the chemical formula of a disaccharide
C11H22O11
60
What type of chemical reaction is formed to produce a disaccharide
dehydration reaction (condensation)
61
When 3 or more _____ molecules are joined a polysaccharide is formed
glucose
62
Explain 3 functions for carbohydrates and include specific monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides
1. Cellulose- the wall of the cell membrane 2. Glucose- the main energy source in blood 3. Glycogen- storage energy in animals
63
A category of lipids called fats is composed of two smaller molecules, they are _____ and \_\_\_\_\_
glycerol and fatty acids
64
Define triacylglycerol
An ester made from glycerol and 3 fatty acids.
65
Explain the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats
Saturated fats are solid and unsaturated fats are liquid
66
Compare and contrast phospholipids and triglycerides
their structures are similar, each are found in the body, phospholipids are for the function of the cell membrane while triglycerides are for storage of energy
67
Contrast steroids and fats
fats provide a cushion for organs and reserve energy and steroids control some of the body's metabolic process and encompasses steroids.
68
List 4 functions of lipids
energy storage, cell growth, hormone synthesis, and cell membrane structure
69
Light Microscope
An optical instrument with lenses that refract visible light to magnify images and project them into a viewers' eye or film
70
what are most cells diameters
between 1 and 100 micrometers
71
Resolution
a measure of the clarity of an image
72
cell theory
the theory that all living things are composed of cells and that all cells come from other cells
73
The maximum size of a cell needs to have a surface area.
large enough to service the volume of a cell
74
what does plasma membrane consist of
phospholipid bilayer and embedded proteins
75
Identify the parts of a basic light microscope and describe the function of each.
Eyepiece: contains the ocular lens, which provides a magnification power of 10x to 15x, usually. This is where you look through. Nosepiece: holds the objective lenses and can be rotated easily to change magnification. Objective lenses: usually, there are three or four objective lenses on a microscope, consisting of 4x, 10x, 40x and 100x magnification powers. In order to obtain the total magnification of an image, you need to multiply the eyepiece lens power by the objective lens power. So, if you couple a 10x eyepiece lens with a 40x objective lens, the total magnification is of 10 x 40 = 400 times. Stage clips: hold the slide in place. Stage: it is a flat platform that supports the slide being analyzed. Diaphragm: it controls the intensity and size of the cone light projected on the specimen. As a rule of thumb, the more transparent the specimen, less light is required. Light source: it projects light upwards through the diaphragm, slide and lenses. Base: supports the microscope. Arm: supports the microscope when carried. Coarse adjustment knob: when the knob is turned, the stage moves up or down, in order to coarse adjust the focus. Fine adjustment knob: used fine adjust the focus.
76
Outline the tenets of the cell theory.
1. All living things are made of cells 2. All cells come from other cells 3. Cells are the smallest unit of life
77
Explain why there are limits to cell size.
They can't get super big because they will then divide and produce other cells by that division
78
Outline the differences between prokaryote and eukaryote cells.
Prokaryotic Cells: A cell having no membrane enclosed nucleus and is only found in bacteria and archaea Eukaryotic Cells: A cell containing a nucleus and are found in any all other living organisms
79
Define “organelle.”
any of a number of organized or specialized structures within a living cell. Found in Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells in their cytoplasm
80
Outline the differences between plant and animal cells.
They are similar in size even though animal cells can be bigger. Other than that, plant cells can contain chloroplast, a cell wall, and vacuoles.
81
Describe the structure and function of the plasma membrane.
Acts as a selective barrier in the passage of ions and molecules in and out of the cell. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and embedded proteins
82
Explain the function of the cytoskeleton.
Provides shape, movement, and anchorage of organelles
83
Describe the three basic types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton
Microtubules are the thickest kinds of fiber in the cytoskeleton and it is a hollow tune made up of globvial proteins called tubulins Intermediate Filaments are a medium sized protein fiber in the cytoskeleton and are rope like and are to reinforce shape and anchor organelles Microfilaments are the thinnest of the proteins in the cytoskeleton and are arranged in a twisted double chain, they are involved in cell movements
84
What are chloroplasts
A chloroplast is an organelle unique to plant cells that contains chlorophyll (which is what makes plants green) and is responsible for enabling photosynthesis to occur, so that plants can convert sunlight into chemical energy.
85
What is a cell wall
The cell wall is a protective layer outside the cell membrane that also provides support for the cell's structure.
86
What are vacuoles
A cell is a tiny world of elements, one of which is the vacuole. Found in both plant and animal cells, a vacuole is a fluid-filled pocket in the cell's cytoplasm that serves varying functions depending on the cell's requirements.
87
Describe the fluid mosaic structure of cell membranes
It is made up of phospholipids that spontaneously self- assemble into simple membranes in bilayers
88
List five functions of membrane proteins
1. Cell-cell recognition 2. Intercellular Junctions 3. Transport 4. Signal Transduction 5. Enzymatic activity
89
Explain how membranes exhibit selective permeability
They allow some substances to cross more easily than others. Many essential ions and molecules, such as glucose, require transport proteins to enter and leave the cell.
90
Explain how the structure of phospholipid molecules is related to the structure and properties of cell membranes
phospholipids are polar and the structure/properties of cell membranes have hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts of the bilayer which makes it polar
91
Diffusion
The spontaneous movement of a substance down its concentration gradient from where it is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated.
92
Explain how some molecules move across the cell's membrane by simple diffusion and some do not
the cells that can move across through simple diffusion are small and non polar and the ones that do not are either big or polar
93
Describe the process of passive transport
A movement across a cell membrane that doesn't require energy. Most of the traffic across a cell membrane is diffusion.
94
Concentration gradient
A region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases. Cells often maintain concentration gradients of ions across their membranes. When a gradient exists, substances tend to move from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated.
95
Explain osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. The process occurs when water travels from the solute with more water to less water.
96
Tonicity
The ability of a solution surrounding a cell to cause that cell to gain or lose water.
97
Distinguish between hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions
A substance is hypertonic to another substance if it has a higher tonicity. A substance is hypotonic to another substance if it has a lower tonicity. Isotonic is when two solutions have the same tonicity.
98
Outline the causes of cystic fibrosis in relation to Cl ion transport
A person with Cystic Fibrosis’ lungs don’t transport proteins out of the cell, resulting in less chlorine outside of the cell meaning that it is hypotonic compared to inside of the cell. The water thus is hypertonic so it moves into the cell leaving the surface dry and filled with bacteria to build up. Under normal circumstances, the transport channels actively work together to evenly transport both chlorine and sodium. This means that the two solutions inside of the cell and outside of the cell are isotonic to each other.
99
Explain how animal and plant cells react to changes in tonicity
so animal cells if the blood cells get too big they burst and the plant cells membrane shrinks but the cell wall stays in tact
100
Explain how transport proteins facilitate diffusion
One type of transport protein provides a hydrophilic channel that some molecules or ions use as a tunnel through the membrane. Another type binds its passenger, changes shape, and releases its passenger on the other side.
101
Outline the discovery of aquaporins
When isolating the Rh proteins it seemed to consist of two proteins.
102
Compare the processes of facilitated diffusion and active transport
Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport so it doesn't require energy while active transport does require energy.
103
Explain the process of active transport
It begins when the solute molecules on the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane attach to sites on the transport protein. Then ATP transfers a phosphate group to the transport protein. The protein changes shape in a way that the solute is released on the other side of the membrane and finally the phosphate group detaches and the transport protein returns to its original shape.
104
Compare and contrast exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis
exocytosis is the movement of materials out of the cytoplasm of a cell by the fusion of the vesicles with the plasma membrane, endocytosis is the opposite of exocytosis and is the cellular uptake of molecules or particles via formation of new vesicles from the plasma membrane. Phagocytosis is cellular eating. It is also a type of endocytosis which a cell engulfs macromolecules into its cytoplasm. Finally, Pinocytosis is cellular drinking and is a type of endocytosis as well.
105
What is selective permeability
A property of biological membranes that allows some substances to cross more easily than others and blocks the passage of other substances altogether

Honors Bio (7 decks)

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