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Biology 100 > Midterm 3 (Ch.13-15) > Flashcards

Midterm 3 (Ch.13-15) Flashcards

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1
Q

Lecture 13

Inheritance and genetics

A

Todays Lecture, Still need to finish rest of ch. 13 and ch.12

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2
Q

Crossing Over and Linkage

A

Homologous chromosomes line up during meiosis
Parts of maternal and paternal chromosomes migrate

  • Linkage :
    - two genes on the same chromosome
    - Not independently assorted
    - Segregate together

Crossing-over causes them to separate
Crossing-over reduces genetic linkage

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3
Q

Impact of crossing-over

A 
Linked genes should always assort together
Should have resulted in two phenotypes
----both recessive or both dominant traits
----50% each
                    v
                    v
Crossing over changes that result
Result is less clear-cut
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4
Q

Autosomal recessive diseases

A

Represents several thousand disorders – mild or lethal
Usually both parents are carriers

Heterozygous (Aa)»>Don’t show the phenotype

Two carriers have a ¼ chance of producing affected offspring

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5
Q

Autosomal dominant diseases

A

One copy of the gene causes the disorder
More rare than recessive diseases

Affected individuals usually don’t survive to reproduce
Recur due to new mutations

Some diseases express late in life
More common; individuals can reproduce

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6
Q

Sex determination

A

During reproduction males determine sex
If the sperm has an X, it’s a girl
If the sperm has an Y, it’s a boy

Y has the SRY gene: Sex-determining Region of Y
Males have only one X

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7
Q

Genetic differences between individuals

A

Offspring are not genetic clones of parent
Variation is important for evolution

Variation is produced in four ways:

              - Mutations
              - Independent assortment
              - Crossing over
              - Fertilization
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8
Q

Meiosis and independent reassortment

A

Each homologous chromosome is independently assorted
23 pairs
2^23or 8,388,608 possible gametes
Fertilization: 2^23x 2^23 possible combinations
—over 64 trillion possible offspring

Gametes are sex cells

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9
Q

Genetic diseases

A

Pedigree analysis

Shows disease patterns in families

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10
Q

Crossing-over reduces genetic linkage

A

Homologous chromosomes line up during meiosis

Parts of maternal and paternal chromosomes migrate

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11
Q

Inherited chromosomal abnormalities

A

Some disorders are caused by mutated chromosomes
(not common, usually lethal)

Two main types:
changes in chromosome structure
a)Deletion
b)Inversion
c)Translocation
d)Duplication

changes in chromosome number— errors in meiosis

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12
Q

Inherited chromosomal abnormalities

A

errors in chromosome structure

errors in chromosome number
Most zygotes are not viable
Down syndrome-trisomy 21—–extra 21

Extra X and Y are possible
XXY males:
*Klinefelter syndrome
*Normal life span and intelligence
*Smaller testicle and reduced fertility
*Some with feminine characteristics

XXX females or XYY males
—–Mild changes

XXXY, XXXX or X0 females
—-Wider range of problems,
including mental retardation

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13
Q

Lecture 14

DNA Technology

A

DNA

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14
Q

DNA technology for the analysis and manipulation of DNA

A

Help understand biological processes
Aid in classification of organisms
Important for identification of critical genes
Increase production of important pharmaceuticals
Advanced alteration of crops through genetic modification
Analysis of individuals

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15
Q

Working with DNA

A
  • –DNA extraction
    - Open the cell membranes
    - Remove macromolecules
  • –Use enzymes from cells
    - Able to manipulate DNA in a test tube
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16
Q

Restriction enzymes

A

Cut DNA at highly specific points
Four to seven bases
Consistent results

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17
Q

Other enzymes

A 
First cut and then ligate
DNA ligase (putting back together)
   -Connects DNA fragments
DNA polymerase
   -Makes copies of DNA
   -Uses template
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18
Q

Gel electrophoresis

A

Separation of DNA fragments
Electrical current causes DNA to move towards positive electrode
Distance moved related to length of fragment

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19
Q

DNA hybridization

A

Formation of double -stranded nucleic acids
Labeled DNA probe
Binds only to complimentary DNA template

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20
Q

DNA sequencing

A

Allows identification of sequence of nucleotides in a DNA fragment
Automated sequencing machines–identify millions of bases/day

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21
Q

DNA cloning

A

Many identical copies of a gene or DNA fragment are made
Necessary for DNA manipulation
Sequencing, gene transfer, hybridization

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22
Q

DNA library

A

Collection of cloned DNA fragments
Restriction enzyme digestion
Plasmid–vector
Bacterium-host

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23
Q

DNA library–the screening process

A 
One is isolated from the many clones
Bacteria are plated on agar
Form colonies–each carries one gene
Screen by DNA hybridization
DNA probe for gene of interest
Isolate one colony and amplify
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24
Q

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

A 
Rapid amplification of DNA
Use a special DNA polymerase, resistant to high Temp
Cycles through three Temps:
             High-melting
             Low–annealing of primers
             Medium–polymerase extension
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25
Q

DNA fingerprinting

A
  • Identifies individuals
    • Forensics
    • Paternity test
  • Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) analysis
    • DNA cut with restrictions enzymes
    • Gel electrophoresis
    • DNA hybridization
    • Compare bands
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26
Q

Genetic engineering

A

Transferring genes between organisms
v
v
Genetically modified organism (GMO)

Use of plasmids, viruses, or gene guns
Changes the phenotype
                        v
                        v
Faster growth
Insect, herbicide, disease, or frost resistance
Longer shelf-life
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27
Q

Ethics–Where should the limits be drawn?

A 
Bioengineering of bacteria, plants, dogs, ... humans?
Pesticide resistance-more pesticide use?
Bovine growth hormone-necessary?
Human cloning-therapeutic, reproductive?
Gene therapy–human bioengineering?
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28
Q

Genetic engineering

A
  1. ) DNA extraction
  2. )Creating recombinant plasmid
  3. )Propagating gene of interest through genetic engineering and DNA cloning
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29
Q

Slides to go through in Lecture 14

A

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Reproductive animal cloning
Some applications of DNA cloning
Genetic engineering

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30
Q

Rest of Lecture 13

A

Yupp

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31
Q

Genetics

A

Gregor Mendel, the father of Genetics
Published his work in 1866

The Mendelianum

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32
Q

Somatic cells are diploid

A

Genotype: genetic makeup
Phenotype: expression of a genetic trait/observable
characteristics

Diploid

 - -Two copies of each chromosome
 - -Homologous pair: paternal homologue and maternal   homologue

Haploid
-reproductive cells have only one copy of each chromosome

33
Q

Alleles

A

Alleles: different versions of a given gene i: neither A or B

Homozygote: same two alleles (AA or aa)

Heterozygote: two different alleles (Aa)

Human blood groups
A, B, AB or O

Three alleles of one gene
IA: A type sugar
IB: B type sugar

34
Q

Donor and acceptor

A

A, B, AB or O

Print SLIDE

35
Q

Allele

A

One of two or more alternative versions of a gene.

36
Q

Genotype

A

The genetic makeup of an organism; more specifically, the two alleles of a given gene that affect a specific phenotype in a given individual

37
Q

Heterozygote

A

An individual that carries one copy of each of two different alleles (for example, an Aa individual or a C^wC^r individual

38
Q

Homozygote

A

An individual that carries two copies of the same allele [for example, an AA, aa, or C^wC^w individual]

39
Q

Phenotype

A

The specific version of a genetic trait that is displayed by a given individual; for example, black, brown, red, and blond are phenotypes of the hair color trait in humans.

40
Q

Genetic cross

A

When two individuals are mated

P generation: parent generation
F1 generation: first generation
F2 generation: second generation

41
Q

Gene mutations

A

Different alleles originally arose from a mutation
Mutations can be:
-Harmful
-Beneficial
-Neutral

42
Q

Dominant allele

A

Allele that has exclusive control over the phenotype of an organism when paired with a different allele

43
Q

Recessive allele

A

An allele that does not have a phenotype effect when paired with a dominant allele.

44
Q

Basic patterns of inheritance

A

Mendel started with true-breeding plants

Recessive trait skipped a generation

45
Q

Summary of Mendel’s concepts

A

Alternative versions of genes cause variation in inherited traits

Offspring inherit one copy of a gene from each parent

An allele is dominant if it has exclusively control
over the phenotype of an organism when paired with a different allele

Two copies of a gene separate in meiosis and end up
in different gametes

Gametes fuse without regard to which alleles they carry

46
Q

Mendel’s first law:

A

Law of segregation

Punnett square

47
Q

Mendel’s second law:

A

Law of independent assortment

48
Q

Extensions of Mendel’s laws

A

Many alleles do not show complete dominance

Incomplete dominance
Co-dominance
Pleiotropy
Epistasis
Environmental effects
Polygenic traits
49
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

Heterozygote is an intermediate

50
Q

Co-dominance

A

Both alleles are expressed

Seen in blood types

IBIBorIBi:type B
IAIB:type AB
IAIA or IA i: type A
ii: type O

51
Q

Pleiotropy

A

A single gene influences a variety of traits

Ex.albinism

  • Absence or reduced production of melanin
  • Skin color
  • Vision problems
52
Q

Epistasis

A 
Gene interaction affects the phenotype
Alleles:
BBorBb= black
bb= brown
cc= white
53
Q

Environmental effects

A

Internal and external conditions influence phenotype

Temperature
Chemicals
Nutrition

54
Q

Polygenic traits

A

Trait is determined by two or more genes

A continuous distribution
Skin color
height

55
Q

Homologous chromosomes

A

*Sex chromosomes
Females have two X chromosomes (XX)
Males have X and Y (XY)
Y is very small with few genes

*Autosomes
The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are homologous

56
Q

Chapter 15

What is evolution

A

What is evolution

57
Q

“Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light

of Evolution”

A

BY Theodosius Dobzhansky

58
Q

LUCA

A

3.5-3.8 billion years ago

59
Q

The study of evolution

A

French naturalist
Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet,
Chevalier de [Lamarck] (1744-1829)

English naturalist
Sir Charles Robert Darwin
(1809-1882)

Giraffe

60
Q

Biological evolution

A

Charles Darwin
Descent with modification
A change in the genetic characteristics of a population of organisms over time

61
Q

A change in the population

A

Only populations can evolve, individuals cannot

62
Q

Mechanisms of evolution

A

*Individual variation exists
Morphology: form and structure
Biochemistry
Behavior

*Evolution occurs in two ways
Natural selection
Genetic drift

63
Q

Natural selection

A

Organisms with current favorable traits have a better chance at survival

The longer an organism lives, the more reproductive
opportunities it will have

More offspring may be produced by these opportunities

More organisms will now exist with this same favorable trait than in the previous generation

Some snakes are resistant to toxin produced by newts
Snakes have evolved to resist the toxin

64
Q

Genetic drift

A

Differences between organisms in reproduction or survival due to chance; random
Environmental disturbances can cause genetic drift

  • Hurricanes
  • Volcanic eruptions
  • Clearing land for development
  • Overhunting a species

Chance

65
Q

Impact of evolution

Three major themes in biology

Adaptation

A

Evolution results in three major themes in biology:
1. Adaptation: Any characteristic that improves the survival of an organism

  1. Diversity: The result of speciation (production of species)
  2. Shared inherited characteristics:
    Characteristics arise due to a common ancestry
  3. Adaptation :Any characteristic that improves the survival of an organism
    It is the result of natural selection
66
Q

Impact of evolution

Diversity

A
  1. Diversity: The result of speciation

A species is an organism that cannot reproduce with
other species
Speciation may be caused by geographical barriers

67
Q

Impact of evolution

Shared inherited characteristics

A
  1. Shared inherited characteristics:
    Shared features arise due to a common ancestry

Homologous structures
Vestigial structures

68
Q

Horses and Donkeys

A

They create a mule, the mule will be infertile because the horse and donkey are two different species. But they can have sex and have an embryo, but it will be infertile

69
Q

Impact of evolution

Shared no inherited characteristics

A

Shared non-inherited characteristics
Convergent evolution in similar adaptations

These are considered analogous structures:
Thorns on roses and cacti
Wings on birds and insects

70
Q

Evolutionary tree

A 
Evolutionary derived features
Shared features from common ancestry
Descendants share features
Group of close relatives
Each level has unique shared features
Evolutionary convergent feature
Shared features not from common ancestor
Shared features evolved independently
Example: Opposable thumb
(pandaversuschimpanzee)
71
Q

Evidence for evolution: fossils

A

Fossil record
Extinctions(either it may have evolved into a new species or died)
Change in species

72
Q

Evidence for evolution: evolutionary history

A

Organisms contain evidence of their evolutionary history
Vestigial structures
Embryological development

73
Q

Evidence for evolution: independent lines of evidence

A

Homology between the DNA sequence; example: cytochrome C
Enzyme for aerobic respiration
Present in all eukaryotes

Morphology similarity decreases, you begin to see a change in how one looks.

DNA homology decreases

74
Q

Evidence for evolution: continental drift

A

The lungfish existed before the break-up of the super-continent, Pangaea

Horses appeared in North America, ~5,000,000 years ago

Fossils of horses in South America are younger than
3,000,000, the time when the land-bridge between the Americas was formed

75
Q

Evidence for evolution: Direct observation

A 
Direct observations of genetic change in populations
Artificial selection
Farming crops
Domesticated animals
An example of how populations can change
76
Q

All the same species

A 
Brassica oleracea( common wild mustard)
From this comes :
Kohlrabi
Brussel Sprouts
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Broccoli
Kale
77
Q

Evidence for evolution: present day formation of species

A

Rapid evolutionary change due to environmental conditions
Harsh conditions drive changes in the population
Changes can be seen in our time

78
Q

Impact of evolutionary thought

A

Darwinian evolution had a major effect on religion
Evolution versus creationism
Understanding evolution has impacted technology
Development and use of pesticides
Antibiotics
Gene therapy

Biology 100 (7 decks)

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