Midterm 3 Flashcards
Evolution of emotions
emotions are linked with regions of human nervous system- limbic system, brain stem
Primitive/reptillian brain
limbic system
Emotions that infants are capable of showing
distress, excitement, joy, rage
Development of prefrontal cortex
exerts control over limbic system, increases self-regulation of emotions, rapid development during preschool years (3-5), deals with raw emotions, children will have to regulate emotions to function in school and with their peers
Limbic system
thalamus, hypothalamus, frontal lobe, olfactory bulb, amygdala, hippocampus
Amygdala
senses fear and danger, distinguishes different emotions
Primary emotions
appear in first 6 months of life: joy, sadness, fear, surprise
Culture and emotion
different expectations across cultures
Display rules
where, when, and how emotions should be expressed, east asian parents encourage “emotional reserve” opposed to “emotional expressivity”, Japanese parents try to prevent children from experiencing negative emotion, non-latino white mothers more likely to try to soothe children and help them cope
Self-concious emotions
developed around 18 months, higher level of emotions, being aware of expectations, includes: pride, shame, embarrassment, guilt, requires self-awareness
example: mother is holding baby doll, baby cries, is baby jealous or just wants to play with toy?
Functionalist view of emotions
emotional expressions serve various purposes: showing how one is feeling, regulating one’s own behavior, linked with goal achievement, showing emotions can help self-regulation, can be a form of communication
Function of smiling
communicate joy, participation in shared joy, build a relationship/bond
Reflexive smile
response to internal stimuli (gas, digestion)
Social smile
response to external stimuli (mother)
Anticipatory smile
communicate pre-existing positive emotion, baby shares that they’re already happy (smile at object then look at mother, wanting to share joy)
Stranger anxiety
begins at about 6 months, intensifies by 9 months, context matters (safe environment)
Protest separation
separation anxiety, peaks at about 15 months in US infants, different across cultures
Function of crying
to communicate
Basic crying
rhythmic pattern of cry, brief silence, shorter whistle (hungry, diaper change)
Anger crying
basic cry with more force
Pain crying
sudden, long, initial cry, then breath holding
Why do adults cry?
emotional tears are uniquely human, relief, communicate need some sort of assistance
Co-escalation
infants and parents modify reactions in response to each other, example a dysregulated child may act out, talk back to a parent, who in turn starts yelling at the child
Emotion regulation and coping in caregivers
help regulate infants before and when they become agitated, positive parenting predicts high level of emotional regulation in emotionally reactive infants
Emotion regulation and coping in infants/toddlers
self soothe (suck thumb), distract self (look away), use language
Too soothe or not to soothe?
John Watson: parents spend too much time responding to infants, “spoil” them
Bowlby & Ainsworth: no such thing as too much soothing, spoiling an infant
Co-regulation –> self-regulation
changing balance between other regulation and self-regulation as child develops into adult, start as co-regulators, end as self-regulators but always doing both
Emotion coaching
negative emotions are opportunities for teaching
Emotion dismissing
negative emotions need to be changed
Emotional competence
developing skills to effectively manage emotions in a variety of settings and situations, involves: understanding emotion faces, being able to predict how an event will make someone feel, being able to predict how an emotion will make someone act
Emotional competence is related to?
effective management of stressful situations, development of positive relationships
Examples of emotional competence skills
awareness of one’s own emotions (identify when sad), detecting others’ emotions, awareness that the expression of emotions impacts relationships
Early childhood
Children begin to understand that: specific situations are likely to evoke different emotional reactions, facial expressions are indicative of different emotional reactions, emotions affect behavior, emotions can influence others’ emotions
2-4 years
increase in number of terms for emotion
4-5 years
same event can elicit a different emotional reaction in different people (theory of mind)
Middle and late childhood
increased understanding of potential to experience more than one emotion, increased awareness of what contributed to an emotional response, ability to suppress/conceal negative emotional reactions, increased ability to effectively self-soothe
Ways adults help children exposed to disaster and terrorist attacks
reassure children of safety, allow children to recall events, encourage children to talk about confusing events, try to prevent re-exposure through reminders, help children make sense of the event
Incredible Years
goal is to prevent and treat young children’s behavior problems and promote their social, emotional, and academic competence
This region of the brain is sometimes referred to as the “primitive or reptilian brain”
limbic system
Brandon was playing basketball in his driveway. He fell and skinned his knee. He ran into the house crying. When his mother saw him she said “crying isn’t going to solve anything.” This is an example of:
emotion dismissing
Which of the following is not a primary emotion? surprise, fear, pride, sadness
pride
The ability to recognize that people do not all have the same emotional reaction to the same situation is closely linked to what other area of development?
theory of mind
Temperament
links with personality, adapting to the child- goodness of fit and parenting, 3 different classifications
Definition of temperament
individual difference in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding
Chess and Thomas’ classification of temperament
easy child, difficult child, slow-to-warm-up child
Easy child
generally positive mood, quickly adjusts to changes in routines, adapts easily (40%)
Difficult child
generally reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, slow to accept change, easily upset (10%)
Slow-to-warm-up child
low activity level, somewhat negative, low intensity of mood, in the middle, more time with adjustment (15%)
Pluess and Belsky 2009
Children with difficult temperament show more problems when experiencing low quality child care and fewer problems when experiencing high quality child care than easy temperament children, differential susceptibility in child temperament
Kagan’s behavioral inhibition
one broad category: “inhibition to the unfamiliar”, extent to which children react negatively to the unfamiliar with initial avoidance, distress, subdued affect; from toddler age to 4 years, good stability. by 7 years, some “inhibited” children moved to intermediate group (between inhibited and uninhibited)
Rothbart and Bates’ classification of temperament
children vary on 3 different domains: extraversion/surgency, negative affectivity, effortful control; domains emphasize children’s positive and negative emotions/level of arousal. action is driven by these tendencies, children with better effortful control may be more flexible, better able to handle stressful situations
Temperament and personality
Early temperament linked with adult personality, easy to soothe children (3-5 years) likely to be well-adjusted adults, highly inhibited children less likely to be assertive or experience social support as adults, heredity and experience shape temperament and personality
Goodness of fit and parenting
fit between child temperament and environment (often caregiving), parents of children with inhibited/difficult/negative affect like temperaments may need the most support, parent realizes child has lots of needs and needs to be soothed or explained to, not a one-way street
Transition to parenting
timing of parenting (planning vs. surprise, many waiting until careers are established), different types of parents (biological, adoptive, stepparents)
Marital quality
longitudinal study followed families til baby was 3.5 years, couples had more positive marital relations before baby was born, 1/3 reported increased marital satisfaction, dissatisfaction related to decreased quality time with spouse, perceptions in uneven distribution of household tasks
Role of parents across development
managers of opportunities, monitors behavior and academics, make decisions about schools to attend, social arrangers, provide structure and guidance, ensure child gets proper medical care, mothers more likely to take on “managerial” role
Parenting in infancy
heavy focus on caregiving: feeding, changing diapers, bathing, soothing, attempts to baby-proof house: anticipate what may be dangerous (locks on cabinets, plugs in outlets), gradual increase in non-caregiving behaviors: play, visual-vocal exchanges, managing the infant’s behavior
Infant behavior management: discipline and corrective methods
12 months - divert attention, reason with, ignore, negotiate
24 months- still use the above, also more likely to “yell in anger”
Overall increase in corrective behaviors from 12-24 months. why?
increase in cognitive skills and ability to move around
Parenting in early childhood
ROUTINES (bedtime regularities, meals, chores), EMOTION REGULATION (helping children control temper and behavior, managing sibling conflict, learn manners), AUTONOMY (helping children become more independent like getting dressed for school, starts when children are able to move around)
Parenting in middle and late childhood
children becoming more autonomous but parents are still important, supporting academic achievement, supporting extracurricular and outside of school activities, monitoring
Monitoring
supervising children’s choices in social settings, activities, and friends
Higher monitoring associated with:
lower drug use (alcohol and marijuana), better academic achievement
Behavior management in children: middle and late childhood vs. early childhood/toddler years
less use of physical force in middle and late childhood than early childhood/toddler years, parents are more likely to take away privileges and make statements that increase children’s guilt to prevent repetition of unwanted behavior
Parenting practices
specific concrete behaviors parents use with socializing children, routines: reading with children before bed every night, setting a bedtime, ensuring children eat breakfast; likely to change across development
Parenting styles
stable over time, provide the “emotional climate” for parenting practices, usually defined in terms of parent sensitivity/warmth and expectations for child behavioral control
Parenting styles
4 main styles, parents should strive for authoritative, might mix styles
Authoritative parenting
teaching/training, nurturing, accepting, using reason rather than force
high sensitivity and warmth, high expectations, demanding
Authoritarian parenting
compliance, using force rather than reason, relatively cold, rejecting, strict
low sensitivity and warmth, high expectations, demanding
Indulgent parenting
permissive, confidence that child will find his/her own way, high nurturance, not monitoring behavior
high sensitivity and warmth, low expectations, undemanding
Neglectful/uninvolved parenting
low monitoring and nurturance, associated with drug abuse and low grades
low sensitivity and warmth, low expectations, undemanding
High sensitivity + high expectations
authoritative
High sensitivity + low expectations
indulgent
Low sensitivity + high expectations
authoritarian
Low sensitivity + low expectations
neglecting
Abby’s mom walks into the living room and sees that it’s a mess. She grabs Abby by the hand, pulls her to the living room, and yells “you need to clean this up now.” Abby tries to tell her that her younger brother made the mess, but Abby’s mom tells her to not talk back. Which parenting style? How to change to authoritative?
authoritarian
grabbing pulling –> ask to come to living room, go to Abby to talk to her
yelling –> calmly state what she needs to do, be polite (say please)
refusing conversation –> be willing to listen
Authoritative parenting linked with:
empathy development, positive peer relationships, better academic achievement, reduced problem behaviors like substance use
empathy= take another child’s perspective
Academic competence in different parenting styles
authoritative parenting linked with best academic competence, next indulgent, then authoritarian, last neglectful
Parenting styles in context
authoritative style associated with positive developmental outcomes across different cultures
Possible cultural differences in the consequence of using physical punishment
non-latino white children more likely to show externalizing problems (acting out behaviors) than african american children
Parenting styles - caveats
does not explicitly address the reciprocal nature of parent/child interaction, parents may use one style but may use one most often, could parenting styles be too broad? are some aspects more important than others for example monitoring more important than warmth?
Corporal punishment associated with:
immediate compliance, increased aggression, lower levels of moral internalization, worse mental health
26% of parents report spanking children, 67% of parents report yelling at them regularly
Reasons not to use corporal punishment
modeling poor problem solving, can instill fear in children, does not inform the child what s/he should be doing, “slippery slope” towards maltreatment
Better methods than corporal punishment
tell them what they should do, not what they should stop, “use walking feet” instead of “don’t run”
Counterarguments on corporal punishment
matters how the parent delivers the punishment (only sometimes spanking, using light spanking), may matter what the cultural norm is
Co-parenting
parents may be more prone to use different styles, important to coordinate: expectations, consequences, make difficult decisions together, doing otherwise may undermine one parent especially in divorce families
Child maltreatment includes:
physical abuse, child neglect (occurs 3x more often as abuse), sexual abuse, emotional abuse, different forms of abuse/neglect often co-occur
Maltreatment as a “unique” risk factor
more risk factors a child has, more risk for troubles, very important risk factor
Physical abuse
infliction of physical injury through: punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking, NOT hitting, often the parent did not intend to hurt the child, may be the result of excessive physical punishment, only reportable if it leaves a mark needs to be a certain threshold
Neglect
failure to provide for child’s basic needs, abandonment, allowing chronic truancy, inattention to emotional needs, not monitoring enough
Sexual abuse
fondling of a child’s genital, intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy, exhibitionism, commercial exploitation through prostitution or production of pornographic materials
Emotional abuse
acts or omissions by caregivers that could cause serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems
What leads to child abuse/risk factors
parenting stress, substance abuse, social isolation, single parenting, socioeconomic difficulties (poverty), 1/3 of parents who were abused go on to abuse their own children (intergenerational pattern)
Developmental consequences from child abuse
poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, poor relationships, academic difficulty, delinquency, violence in romantic relationships, sexual risk taking, mental health problems, depression, health problems as adults (diabetes, lung disease, related to stress response systems), impairment across the board, maltreatment is a huge risk factor, child learns caregiver is someone dangerous, impacts how the child sees the world, child thinks they deserve abuse
Each night before going to bed, John puts on his pajamas, brushes his teeth, and then his mom reads him a book. This is an example of:
parenting practice
True or false: an authoritative parent is more likely to use emotion coaching than emotion dismissing
True
Susan is an infant who shows a high level of negative affect. She is easily distressed and cries frequently. Her father tries to introduce Susan to new tasks slowly and understands that she will need more time to adjust to changes in routine than other infants. The complementary relationship between Susan’s temperament and her father’s parenting is an example of?
Goodness of fit
Based on what you know about the importance of monitoring in adolescence, which parenting style is likely most associated with adolescent drug use?
Indulgent or neglect
Attachment
a close emotional bond between two individuals in a long-term relationship
Biological
processes of the physical body
Socioemotional
emotion, personality, relationships
Cognitive
thought, intelligence, and language
Stages of attachment
Phase 1: 0-2 months, instinctive orientation to any human
Phase 2: 2-7 months, start to distinguish primary caregivers from strangers
Phase 3: 7-24 months, specific attachments develop
Phase 4: 24 months plus, understanding of goals and intentions of others develops
Harlow’s monkeys
rhesus monkeys raised by “surrogate mothers” (wire and cloth), food vs. security, security wins, runs over to get food from wire mother but always clings to cloth mother, especially when scared
Strange situation
measure of attachment security developed by Mary Ainsworth, series of separations from and reunions with caregiver, recorded and coded, how does the child react upon reunion? 4 major patterns: secure, insecure avoid ant, insecure resistant, disorganized
Secure attachment
caregiver as “secure base” to explore new space, comforted by caregiver only, results from consistent, sensitive caregivers
Insecure avoidant attachment
largely ignore caregiver upon leaving and reunion, results from negligent caregivers
Insecure resistant attachment
upset at separation, not comforted by caregiver, results from inconsistent caregivers
Disorganized attachment
don’t know whether to approach or to avoid, results from abusive caregivers
Validity of strange situation
internal validity: caregiver can “fake it,” but child won’t
predictive validity: consistent over time
security early = more effective peer relationships in school
insecurity early = greater hostility toward romantic partner at 20-21
Self-understanding
child forms cognitive representation of the self; substance and content of self conceptions; becomes more complex across development
Self-understanding in young child
“I’m tall.” “I like to play soccer.”
Self-understanding in adolescent
“I’m caring but sometimes unkind.”
Self-understanding in infants
visual self-recognition (around 3 months), recognize self in mirror and respond positively, rouge test: child touches mirror vs. own nose
Self-understanding in early childhood
self focused language: “me do it” “me big” (2-3 years)
confusion of self, mind, body: self is part of the body, can be described physically (size, shape, color)
concrete descriptions: “I’m tall.” “I know by ABC’s”
physical descriptions to distinguish self from others “I’m taller than Joe”
active descriptions: describing self in terms of activities
Self-evaluations in early childhood
younger children prone to unrealistic positive overestimations of personal attributes, difficult to separate ideal and actual self, not engaging in much social comparison, some children still prone to negative self attributions (related to high levels of parenting stress, depressive systems)
Self-understanding in middle and late childhood
psychological characteristics and traits: describe themselves as “popular, nice, helpful”
social descriptions: descriptions of self include references to social groups (e.g. girl scout, catholic)
social comparison: children think about who they are and what they can do in comparison to others
real self and ideal self, better able to distinguish
self evaluations are more realistic
Self-understanding in adolescence
abstract and idealistic: “I’m human. I don’t know who I am.” “I’m caring and good looking”
self-consciousness: related to adolescent egocentrism
social comparison
contradictions within the self: “I’m insensitive and understanding”
fluctuating self: self-understanding fluctuates across time and contexts
possible self: what the adolescent may become, wants to become, is afraid of becoming
self-integration: constructing a “general theory of self”
When Sam is asked about himself, he says that he is taller than Maria but not as tall as Brad. He also states liking football and playing hames with neighborhood kids. Based on his description of himself, it is most likely that Sam is in:
early childhood
When Robert is asked about himself, he describes that he goes back and forth between wanting to become a scientist or a doctor. He’s smart but not all that smart at times. He really likes biology but thinks that other students are better at it than him. Robert is excited about his future but he’s also worried that he won’t achieve his goals. It is most likely that Robert is in:
Adolescence (self consciousness, contradictions within self, possible self, social comparison)
Social cognition
processes involved in understanding the world around us, especially in regards to how we think and reason about other people
Understanding others in early childhood
describing self and others with psychological traits, understanding that others may be untrue, begin to understand others’ internal states, perspective taking, understanding how another child might feel in a situation
Understanding others in adolescence
increases in perspective taking: girls more likely to engage in social perspective taking, more likely to take on friends’ distress as own
younger adolescents more naïve to social perspective taking involving vulnerable and less vulnerable social groups (racism, sexism) than older adolescents
increased perception of others’ traits: understand that others may overestimate abilities and that others have “public and private” faces
Social cognitive monitoring in adolescence
more extensively able to monitor their own worlds, example “I would like to know more about Tim, but he is not very open”
Perspective taking has been linked with more prosocial behavior (voluntary behavior to benefit others) and better emotion regulation in children. What are some explanations that may explain these findings?
prosocial- better understand how children may feel in a specific scenario, how their own actions may help or hinder
emotion regulation- better able to understand others intent
Hostile attribution bias
tendency to attribute negative attention to neutral actions