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Child Psych > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Information processing

A

How children process information about their world; how they manipulate information, monitor it, and create strategies to deal with it
Theoretical approach about cognitive development and how children learn
Maturational changes (how children make cognitive gains) in basic components of a child’s mind

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2
Q

“Machinery”

A

Attention, working memory (active), long term memory (passive)

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3
Q

Attention

A

“Focusing of mental resources” (eye contact, nodding)

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4
Q

Working memory

A

“Manipulate and assemble information”

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5
Q

Long term memory

A

“Relatively permanent memory”

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6
Q

Lisa’s teacher tells her to try to remember a string of words- ball, hat, tree, fork

A

Attention

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7
Q

Lisa’s teacher tells her the string of words again, but this time asks her to say them backwards

A

Working memory (need to manipulate)

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8
Q

Lisa’s teacher asks her to write about her favorite memory - Lisa writes about when she went to Disney World three years ago

A

Long term memory

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9
Q

Developmental changes in information processing

A

Capacity (amount of information)

Speed of processing (how quickly)

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10
Q

Biological changes in information processing

A

Frontal lobes developing (in early childhood), synaptic pruning (taking out what isn’t important), myelination (efficiency)

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11
Q

Processing speed

A

How quickly children process information impacts what they can do with the information
The quicker you can process, the more complex ideas you can manipulate in your mind
Changes rapidly across development
Increase in processing speed precedes increase in working memory

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12
Q

Amy needs 2 eggs per cake. She bakes 3 cakes. How many eggs did she need?
Amy needs 2 eggs. She bakes 3 cakes. She also needs one egg per 6 cupcakes. She bakes 18 cupcakes. How many eggs does she need all together?

A

If you can easily process the first part it will make the second part a lot easier

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13
Q

Processing speed problems in children

A

Falling behind, prolonged time on homework and tests, extra accommodations

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14
Q

Encoding

A

The process by which information gets into memory; involves encoding relevant information, ignoring irrelevant information
Example: Amy needs 2 eggs per cake. Amy likes cupcakes better than cakes. Amy bakes one cake. How many eggs does she need?
(Ignore that Amy likes cupcakes better- irrelevant information)

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15
Q

Automaticity

A

Ability to process information with little or no effort; with practice, children encode increasing amounts of information automatically
Example: with practice, children do not need to think about each letter when reading, they can process the entire word
Sounding out words while reading as a child, now taking word in as whole, relevant information is first and last letter

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16
Q

Strategy construction

A

Creating new procedures for information processing
Involves metacognition (knowing about knowing)
Organizing words
Child knows something about how they learn
Example: a child knows that relating a story to his or her own life will help him/her remember the story better

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17
Q

Mechanisms of change

A

Development is gradual
Unlike Piaget, does not view development as occurring in stages
Proposes that individuals gradually develop increased capacity to processing information –> acquiring complex knowledge and skills

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18
Q

Selective attention

A

Focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant

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19
Q

Divided attention

A

Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time

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20
Q

Sustained attention

A

Ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time

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21
Q

Executive attention

A

Planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, dealing with novel circumstances
(Executive function)

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22
Q

Attention

A

Continues to develop and improve into adulthood (prime at age 25)

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23
Q

Go no go

A

84% go, 16% no go
3 go stimuli every 6 seconds
no go stimulus every 10-15 seconds
Works on selective attention, just looking at part of the screen
Works on sustained attention, lasts 15 minutes, helps determine ADD

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24
Q

Tower of London

A

Executive attention planning component

Can look at: how well they plan or rule violations (how impulsive they are)

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25
Q

Development of attention in infancy

A 
Orienting/investigative process
Sustained attention
Habituation and dishabituation
Joint attention
Gets better as you get older
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26
Q

Joint attention

A

Requires: ability to track another’s behavior, one person directing another’s attention, reciprocal interaction
“Gaze following” develops around 10-11 months
Beneficial for learning
In infancy, related to: language development in toddlers, long term memory, self-regulation

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27
Q

Attention in childhood

A

Rapid development during preschool years
Sustained attention and executive attention important for school
Gradually able to direct attention more
What parents think teachers want vs. what they actually want

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28
Q

Attention in adolescence

A

Sustain attention for longer
Divided attention- multitasking
“Cognitive flexibility”

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29
Q

Memory

A

Retention of information over time

Basis processes: encoding, storage, retrieval

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30
Q

Encoding

A

Getting information into memory

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31
Q

Storage

A

Retaining information over time

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32
Q

Retrieval

A

Taking information out of storage

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33
Q

Short-term memory

A

Limited capacity, retained 15-30 seconds

Originally thought of as “passive storage house”

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34
Q

Long-term memory

A

Relatively permanent memory

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35
Q

Working memory

A

Mental manipulation
“Work bench”
Often preferred over the term “short term memory”

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36
Q

Alan Baddeley’s model of working memory

A 
Visualspacial working memory, input via sensory memory, phonological loop, rehearsal, long-term memory...
These processes are always going on
Active process (a lot of parts working together)
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37
Q

Working memory and cognitive development

A

Working memory and attention predicted growth in emergent literacy and number skills
Working memory predicts foreign language comprehension in school age children
Assessment of working memory in kindergarten predicts math achievement at end of first grade

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38
Q

Constructing memories

A

People construct their own memories; mind can distort information as it is being encoded (won’t remember event the same way someone else does who was also there)

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39
Q

Schema theory

A

People mold memories to fit information already in their minds

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40
Q

Cultural- specificity hypothesis

A

To different people, different information is more meaningful
Take in what’s interesting to them and relevant to their life

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41
Q

Infantile amnesia

A

Uncommon to remember events prior to 3-4 years old
Adults, older children, school age children do not remember much about early childhood years (prefrontal lobes still immature) (related to brain development more than time span)
World is so different under age 3 when you are being taken care of

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42
Q

First memories

A

Carolyn Rovee-Collier: infants remember perceptual-motor information
Experiment with mobile: baby’s ankle tied to mobile with ribbon, baby returned to mobile weeks later, will kick only if mobile is identical
Signifies early memories

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43
Q

Implicit memory

A

Memory without conscious recollection; memories of skills and routines that are performed automatically

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44
Q

Explicit memory

A

Conscious memory of facts or experiences

Episodic and semantic memories

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45
Q

Episodic memories

A

Autobiographical (events)

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46
Q

Semantic memories

A

Remembering words

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47
Q

Hippocampus

A

Impacts ability to retain and recall information; important for explicit memories
Considerable development between 6-12 months

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48
Q

Prefrontal cortex

A

More involved in episodic memory

Minor involvement in semantic memory

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49
Q

Amygdala

A

Involved in encoding emotionally balanced memories
“Flashbulb memories”
Older part, has been there evolutionarily
Fear, disorders, phobias, anxiety
Emotionally charged
9/11- fear component, negative charge
Help to avoid danger in future

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50
Q

Fuzzy trace theory

A

Individuals encode two different types of information: verbatim memory trace, fuzzy trace or gist
“Fuzzy traces” used more as children get older; related to improved memory
Fuzzy traces allow you to take in more information, good strategy to use
More bananas than apples, not how many

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51
Q

Memory

A

Continues to improve in adolescence and early adulthood
Depends on content knowledge and expertise
Not always a function of age, but also expertise

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52
Q

Chi, 1978

A

Young chess players and college students
Assessed on auditory working memory, visual memory
College students performed better on auditory working memory (hearing words)
Chess players better on visual working memory (where chess pieces were located on a board) (remember set of faces)

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53
Q

Memory span

A

7 + or - 2 digits

Short term memory has limited capacity (primacy effects, recency effects)

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54
Q

Improve memory with

A

Processing speed, rehearsal of information, strategies

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55
Q

Organization

A

Improves throughout childhood
Rarely used by preschool age children
Pneumonic phrases

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56
Q

Elaboration

A

Thinking of examples, finding ways to make information meaningful

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57
Q

Imagery

A

Developing a “mental image” to remember material

Works best for older children

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58
Q

Reconstructive memories

A

Build memories from pre-existing schemas
Memories are vulnerable, have gaps
Children (and adults) fill in information differently
Individual differences in susceptibility
Age differences in susceptibility
Interviewing techniques may produce distortions
Younger children are more susceptible to filling in gaps without being aware

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59
Q

Memories at Disneyland

A

Participants had previously been at Disneyland and were asked to read ads:
1. Ad mentioned no cartoon characters
2. Same add but saw 4 ft cardboard Bugs Bunny
3. Fake ad for Disney with Bugs Bunny
4. Fake ad and 4 ft cardboard Bugs Bunny
Who remembered seeing Bugs Bunny at Disneyland?
10% in groups 1 and 2
30-40% in groups 3 and 4
Bugs Bunny was not at Disneyland
Susceptible to false memories
Letting people fill in the gaps and not knowing if its your own memory

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60
Q

“Lost in a shopping mall”

A 
Elizabeth Lofus
Study on "childhood memory"
Participants told about being lost in mall
Specifics of story personalized
25% recall event
Not everyone is convinced
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61
Q

Child interview techniques

A 
Open questions (older children)
Focused questions = best
Multiple choice questions
True/fase
Avoid leading questions - don't lead them to any specific answer (sometimes in court these are asked but they should NOT be asked during the initial interview)
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62
Q

What is the difference between explicit and implicit memory? Give examples

A

Implicit is automatic response, habit (driving)

Explicit is episodic, semantic, words, events

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63
Q

Semantic clustering is an example of?

A

Organizational strategy

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64
Q

Robert’s teacher told the class to study their spelling words for 5 min, write in their journals for 10 min, and work w/ parter on math hw…

A

Primacy effect

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65
Q

Thinking

A

Transforming and manipulating information in mind
Allows people to reason, reflect, evaluate ideas, solve problems, and make decisions
Takes mental effort
Not automatic
Cognitive domain: thought, intelligence, and language

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66
Q

Perceptual categorization

A

Based on similar perceptual attributes (how they look)
Earlier: 3-4 months
Animals vs. objects

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67
Q

Conceptual categorization

A

Based on concepts (how things go together)
Later: 7-9 months
Dogs vs. barn

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68
Q

Concepts

A

Cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas

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69
Q

Habituation

A

Kids will dishabituate when things don’t belong

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70
Q

Analogy

A

Correspondence between things that are dissimilar
Symbol
“I feel like a fish out of water”
“Life is like a box of chocolate”

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71
Q

Tiny room experiment

A

2 1/2 year olds failed
3 year olds passed
Hide toy in tiny room (doll house), kid sees, hide in real room, 2 year olds search randomly, 3 year olds find it

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72
Q

Expanding room experiment

A

2 1/2 year olds passed
3 year olds passed
Big lights and noises, same room grows bigger, then they find it

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73
Q

Scale errors

A

Attempts to perform tasks on objects of inappropriate size
Trying to sit on Barbie chair
Trying to get in or ride a toy car or go down a doll slide
Explanation: kids perceptions of themselves, fail to recognize their own bodies
2 year olds still making these mistakes (do have a sense of self though)
Pass mirror test but now have emotion to play with toys

74
Q

Strategies

A

Deliberate, non-obligatory, goal-directed mental operations aimed at solving a problems
Not automatic responses to a problem
Require thinking
Autopilot is NOT a strategy
Multiple strategies to achieve same goal
As kids become older, better able to find best strategy
Examples: A 2 year old stares at the place her toy is hidden so she can find it again after time-out, a 6 year old uses his fingers to count, a 10 year old comes up with a simple song to remember the number of days in each month (chooses and uses strategy to accomplish goal)
All deliberate and mentally effortful

75
Q

Development of strategy use

A

Older children are more likely to use strategies, select more effective and efficient strategies, and perform better on tasks than younger children
Younger kids can use strategies but don’t always recognize them

76
Q

Spontaneous use vs. instruction

A

Younger kids can be successful with strategies they are taught (can do it if someone tells them to, but wouldn’t on their own)
Flavell et al., 1966; Ornstein et al., 1975
Kids had to remember list of words and rehearse
6th graders spontaneously rehearsed
2nd graders rehearse systematically only after instruction

77
Q

Adaptive strategy choice model

A

Kids use multiple strategies at any given age

Continuous (gradual flow) vs. discontinuous

78
Q

Critical thinking

A

Thinking reflectively and productively while evaluating available evidence
“How” and “why” (cause)
Look for evidence and facts (questioning things)
Rely on reason, not emotion
Compare various answers
Not just what happened

79
Q

Critical thinking in adolescence

A

Older kids are better critical thinkers (process information faster and more efficiently)
More efficient processing
Greater breadth of content knowledge
Ability to integrate/combine knowledge
Greater range and more spontaneous use of strategies

80
Q

Metacognition

A

“Thinking about thinking”
“Knowing about knowing”
Recognizing what you do and do not know (useful for strategy use)
Higher order thinking
Thinking about first order thoughts
Think about the fact that they are thinking too much
First = individual’s own mind (metacognition about their own thoughts)
Second = other’s minds (theory of mind) (mete cognition about what is going on in other people’s minds)

81
Q

Metacognition in childhood

A

5-6 year olds know: familiar items are easier to learn than unfamiliar ones, short lists are easier to remember than long lists, recognition (multiple choice) is easier than recall (short answer), forgetting becomes more likely over time
Don’t know: related items are easier to remember than unrelated items, remembering the gist of a story is easier than remembering verbatim (small details), they overestimate their own memory capacity
(Gain this understanding by about 5th grade)

82
Q

Metacognition in adolescence

A

Better able to manage cognitive resources (more efficiently deploy attention to different task aspects)
Better understanding of strategies (when to use them and which to pick)
More use of metacognitive skills in school (monitoring text comprehension: 14 years > 12 years)
Increased individual variation

83
Q

Theory of mind

A

Awareness of one’s own mental processes and the mental processes of others
Recognition that other minds have different thoughts than your own mind

84
Q

3 mental states

A

Perceptions: Henry sees the car that is in front of him
Emotions: Scarlett feels bad that she broke her brother’s toy
Desires: Vince wants the candy in his mother’s purse

85
Q

Piaget’s mountain task

A

Example of theory of mind
Child perceives differently than experimenter
Realizing tha other perceptions are different than own

86
Q

Theory of mind scale

A 
Diverse desires: 3y 5m
Diverse beliefs: 4y
Knowledge access: 4y 6m
Contents false belief: 4y 11m
Real-apparent emotion: 5y 4m
87
Q

Theory of mind: diverse desires

A

Kid has to judge a choice another person will make
Mr. Jones doesn’t like cookies. Which snack should he choose, carrot or cookie?
Kid wants cookie, but realizes people have different desires

88
Q

Theory of mind: diverse beliefs

A

Child must judge where a person will search
Cat might be in garage or bushes
Where do you think cat is?
If child says bush…they say Linda thinks its in garage
If child says garage…they say Linda thinks its in bush
Where will Linda look?

89
Q

Theory of mind: knowledge access

A

Kid is shown toy monkey in box
Will girl know what’s inside box? (she doesn’t)
Recognize girl has different thoughts

90
Q

Theory of mind: contents false belief

A

Box of band-aids with crayons inside
What’s inside?
Kid says band-aid, unexpected crayons inside
Character comes out who has never seen inside
What will he think is inside?
Kid who passes will say bandaids

91
Q

The explicit false belief task

A

Sally thought marble was in basket
Kid knows marble is in box
Fail- Sally must know also

92
Q

Theory of mind: real apparent emotion

A

Hardest task
Child sees box of cherios has rocks inside
Give box to stuffed dog
Is spot happy or sad when he gets box?
Happy when gets- thinks they’re cherios, sad when looks inside - doesn’t want rocks
Kid who fails thinks other minds are just like theirs

93
Q

Intelligence

A

Ability to solve problems and to adapt to and learn from experience

94
Q

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A

Derived from performance on an IQ test (score)
Score means something, but doesn’t always reflect intelligence
An individual’s mental age divided by actual age, multiplied by 100
Works best in children
Example: 6 yo w/ mental age of 8 yo

95
Q

Mental age

A

A person’s mental development relative to others (MA/CA X 100 = IQ) (Mental age, chronological age)
5/5 X 100 = 100 (average)

96
Q

Meaning of an IQ of 100

A 
Mean= 100
Standard deviation = 15
Expect IQ to stay stable 
Average = 100
68% of population are falling into standard deviation of 15 (85-115)
97
Q

Superior IQ score

A

Above two standard deviations (above 130)

98
Q

Above average IQ score

A

Within two standard deviations above (116-130)

99
Q

Average IQ score

A

Within one standard deviation (85-115)

100
Q

Below average IQ score

A

Within two standard deviations below (70-84)

101
Q

Impaired IQ score

A

Below two standard deviations (below 70)

102
Q

Intellectual disability/ mental retardation

A

Requires three parts: IQ below 70, impairment in adaptive functioning (can they take care of themselves based on their age?), exhibits these features by age 18

103
Q

Degrees of intellectual disabilities

A

Mild: 55-70, 89%
Moderate: 40-54, 6%
Severe: 25-39, 4%
Profound: below 25, 1%

104
Q

Causes of intellectual disability

A

Organic (developmental) or cultural/familial

105
Q

Organic

A

Result of brain damage

Examples: downs syndrome, fragile X, FASD, anoxia (not enough oxygen to brain)

106
Q

Cultural/familial

A

Caused by growing up in a low intellectual environment; low stimulation

107
Q

Intelligence tests

A

Stanford Binet, V (ages 2 through adult)
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, IV (WPPSI IV, ages 2.5-7)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, IV (WISC-IV, ages 6 through 16)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, IV (WAIS-IV, ages 16 through adult)

108
Q

Sarah is a gifted 16-year-old who is taking an intelligence test to see if she qualifies for a gifted and talented program. The psychometrist (administers tests) administering the test is most familiar with the Wechsler scales. Which test would be the most appropriate to administer?

A

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, IV

Could go either way, but better in her situation to be challenged

109
Q

Bobby is 7-years-old. His parents have concerns about his cognitive development and fear that he is developmentally delayed. Although Bobby is old enough to be administered the WISC-IV, the psychologist administering the test is concerned the material will be too difficult. What should she do?

A

Administer WPPSI

Stanford Binet if not aware of his performance

110
Q

Sophie, who is 5, is administered the Stanford Binet V test of intelligence. She performs at the level of a 7-year-old. What is her IQ? What range is Sophie perform in?

A

7/5 X 100 = 140

Superior

111
Q

History of Stanford Binet intelligence scales

A

Original purpose: french government asked Binet to identify intellectually challenged children for their placement in special education (Binet-Simon scale)
Focus: assess skills that provide the foundation for (i.e., predict) school success (attention, memory, problem solving skills, etc.)

112
Q

Lewis Terman

A

Standardized the Binet-Simon scale with American participants
Adapted version –> Stanford Binet (1916)
Currently on 5th edition

113
Q

Intelligence testing during WWI

A

World war 1: army officials needed to screen army recruits, used to determine soldier’s capability in serving and potential for leadership position
Two versions: Army Alpha, written version and Army Beta, oral equivalent (for illiterate people)
Goal: identify those of superior ability and those with mental defect
Criticisms: you need more than just intelligence when considering a leadership position, IQ is just a number, limitations, underperformance, bad day, anxiety?

114
Q

Wechsler scales

A 
Produces an overall IQ scale and scores for specific domains
Full scale IQ or general abilities index
Verbal comprehension
Perceptual reasoning
Working memory- holding information
Processing speed- quick and accurate
115
Q

Full scale IQ

A

Verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, processing speed (composite of all scores)

116
Q

General abilities index

A

Verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning (process slower, take 2 parts out, not holding skills against them)

117
Q

Use of intelligence tests

A

Predicts school success, work success
Predicts number of years of education
Linked with illness, chronic disease

118
Q

Misuse of intelligence tests

A

Leads to false expectations about people, many reasons why a person may underperform, IQ can become a “self-fulfilling prophecy”

119
Q

What else matters in predicting important developmental outcomes?

A

Motivation
Physical health
Mental health
Social skills

120
Q

Sternberg’s triarchic theory

A

Intelligence comes in three forms:
Analytical - analyze, judge, evaluate (lecture)
Creative - create, design, invent, originate, and imagine (music and art classes)
Practical - use, apply, implement, and put into practice

121
Q

Gardner’s eight frames of mind

A

Howard Gardner - there are many different forms of intelligence
Verbal skills: authors, journalists, speakers
Mathematical skills: scientists, engineers, accountants
Spatial skills: architects, artists, sailors
Bodily-kinesthetic skills: surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, athletes
Musical skills: composers, musicians, and music therapists
Intrapersonal skills: theologians, psychologists
Interpersonal skills: teachers, mental health professionals
Naturalist skills: farmers, botanists, ecologists, landscapers

122
Q

Emotional intelligence

A

Peter Salovey and John Mayor define as the ability to: perceive and expression emotional accurately and adaptively, understand emotion and emotional knowledge, use feelings to facilities though, manage ones own emotions
Mentioned in Gardener’s (interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence) and Sternberg’s (practical intelligence) theories

123
Q

Multiple intelligences?

A

On-going debate

Some argue for multiple intelligences, some argue for “g”

124
Q

General intelligence or “g”

A

One broad factor, not broken up into different categories
An individual who is better at one intellectual task is more likely to excel at other intellectual tasks
Controversy: put together or break it up?

125
Q

Neuroscience of intelligence

A

Brain size: moderate correlation with intelligence
Regions: broadly distributed, particular importance for neural network involving frontal and parietal lobes
Speed of functioning: neurological speed (synaptic connections) faster for gifted children

126
Q

Genetic influences

A

Estimated that 1000 genes contribute, not able to identify specific genes

127
Q

Adoption studies

A

Educational levels of biological parents better predictors of children’s IQ than adoptive parents
Approximately 12-18 point increase when low-income child adopted into high SES household

128
Q

Heritability of intelligence

A

Heritability: fraction of variance within a population that is attributed to genetics, population concept (does not apply to individuals)
Heritability of 1.00 = totally genetic
Considered high when > .70
0 = totally environmental
APA estimates heritability of intelligence = .75, suggesting strong genetic component (may very by study/sample)
Can genes and environment really be separated? They act together

129
Q

Restricted range

A

More enriched environment = higher intelligence (positive correlation)
Looking only at people with enriched environment…no correlation because restricted range

130
Q

Flynn effect

A

Increase in intelligence scores over time

People are becoming more intelligent or performing better on these tests over time

131
Q

Flynn effect is thought to be related to:

A

Improved prenatal care, improved postnatal nutrition, increased schooling and test familiarity (test oriented culture), more stimulating environment

132
Q

Nature vs. nurture

A

Heredity and environment matter
Disagreement about which matters more
Disagreement about whether it makes sense to consider their contributions separately

133
Q

Intelligence and culture

A

Different cultures have different values
Western: thinking and reasoning skills
Eastern: way for community to work together successfully

134
Q

Cultural bias in testing

A

Hot topic in terms of admission tests
Difficult to create “culture-fair tests” (i.e., avoiding cultural bias) - try to reduce questions that favor a specific cultural background, focus on nonverbal questions
May only be possible to create “culture-reduced tests”

135
Q

Ethnic group performance (high to low)

A
  1. Asian americans
  2. Non-latino whites
  3. Latinos
  4. African american
136
Q

Reasons?

A

Stereotype threat (anxiety about a behavior)
Actual IQ differences
Culturally biased tests

137
Q

Tests of infant intelligence

A

Bayley Scales of Infant Development, 3rd edition
Cognitive, language, motor, socioemotional, adaptive
If you have concerns of delays

138
Q

Performance on tests of intelligence

A

Strong correlations between time points (.70-.90)
Individual variability
Around the same IQ at age 8 vs. age 15 for same individual

139
Q

Giftedness

A

Generally thought of as IQ > 130
Other criteria: child is precocious, marching to their own drummer (require less adult assistance), a passion to master, motivated
Nature vs. nurture: likely both hereditary and environmental (family support, training)

140
Q

Importance of gifted and talented programs

A

Keeps children challenged, engaged
Minimize behavioral disruptions from children who are bored
Allows children to form friendships with similar peers
Relate more to other children: important for social development

141
Q

Short answer: describe what the Flynn effect is and give at least two explanations for it

A

Increase in intelligence scores over time
Improved prenatal care, improved postnatal nutrition, increased schooling and test familiarity (test oriented culture), more stimulating environment

142
Q

Alfred Binet developed the Binet-Simon scale (an intelligence test that was later adapted and termed the ‘Stanford Binet’):

A

To identify children who needed special education services

143
Q

Which is not an example of an organic cause of an intellectual disability?

A

Neglect

144
Q

Fill in the blank: IQ tests have a mean of ____ and a standard deviation of ____

A

100, 15

145
Q

Executive function (EF)

A

A set of skills needed for top-down, conscious control of thought, emotion, and behavior
AKA: self-regulation, self-control, executive attention, cognitive control, effortful control
EF does not equal IQ

146
Q

Three components of EF

A

Inhibitory control
Working memory
Cognitive flexibility

147
Q

Inhibitory control

A

Resisting an automatic response

“I really want to eat that donut, but I’m on a diet so I will resist.”

148
Q

Working memory

A

Keeping information in your mind
“She just told me her phone number but I don’t have a pen so I’ll just repeat it over and over in my mind until I find one.”

149
Q

Cognitive flexibility

A

Switching between different rules or ways of thinking

“We usually have math after recess, but this substitute teacher wants to do things differently, so I’ll do it this way.”

150
Q

Importance of EF

A

School: early math and reading ability (better predictor than IQ), SAT scores
Social: social understanding
EF in childhood predicts outcomes at age 32 - physical health, drug dependence, SES, criminality, financial security
Avoided “adolescent traps”

151
Q

EF and the brain

A 
Prefrontal cortex (PFC) - front 1/3 of cerebral cortex
Human vs. chimp
152
Q

Damage to PFC

A

Phineas Gage - a foreman working on construction of railroad track in VT in 1848

153
Q

Studying EF and the brain

A

Accidents/trauma
Animal research
fMRI

154
Q

EF development

A

Protracted developmental course of PFC

155
Q

Measuring EF

A

Dimensional change card sort (DCCS) (sort by shape or color)
Bear dragon
Day/night stroop (see sun- say “night”, see moon- say “day”)
Flanker: press button to match middle fish ignore “flanking” fish
Forward/backward word span: child repeats a series of words

156
Q

Cool vs. hot EF

A

Increasingly recognized distinction - delays in one area can occur without delays in the other area
Cool EF: decontextualized, strictly cognitive tasks
Hot EF: top-down control processes that operate in motivationally and emotionally significant situations

157
Q

Plasticity

A

Evidence shows that EF can be trained
Best to train these skills early, in the preschool years (increase in PFC development during this time, easier to build good habits when you aren’t breaking bad ones, boost in EF prior to entry into kindergarten - initiate a positive cascade of events)

158
Q

Positive cascade

A

Establish good relationship with teacher
Increased motivation to learn
Establish positive association with school
Reduce problem behaviors

159
Q

Psychological distancing

A

Moving away from a first person experience of a situation: the more psychologically distant, the better the EF
Pretend to be batman/dora: “when you play this game, I want you to pretend you are batman. batman is really good at this game!’
Refer to self in 3rd person: “during this game, I want you to ask yourself, is Chloe working hard?”

160
Q

Ready? Set. Go!

A

Aims to improve EF in homeless/ highly mobile (HHM)
Intervention delivered over 3 weeks: brief but potent, HHM families move around a lot- year long program is too long
Three components: teacher training, parent education, individual support

161
Q

Other EF interventions

A 
CogMed
Tools of the Mind
Head Start REDI
Chicago School Readiness Program (CSRP)
Mindful Awareness Practices (MAPS)
Kids in Transition to School (KITS)
Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS)
162
Q

Language

A

Forms of communication based on a system of symbols (spoken or signed)
Multiple meanings
Learning a new language vs. “watch your language” (specific words)
Different languages have different words, symbols, rules…

163
Q

Common characteristics of all languages

A

Infinite generativity

Organization rules

164
Q

Infinite generativity

A

Ability to produce an endless number of meaningful phrases using a finite number of letters and rules (only 26 english letters) (some have less some have more)

165
Q

Organization rules

A

Describe the orderly way we use language

5 types of organizational rules

166
Q

Phonology

A

The sounds that are used and the rules about how they are combined

167
Q

Phoneme

A

The smallest unit of sound that affects meaning
Dog vs. dig (middle phoneme)
Fat vs. cat (1st phoneme)
Bat vs. bar (last phoneme)
Vary across languages
/k/ in “ski” and “cat”
/r/ and /l/
Sound
No meaning on its own
Other languages such as arabic, one phoneme might have multiple meanings
Some native speakers can’t distinguish /r/ and /l/
Each language has their own rules about which phonemes can be combined
English phoneme combinations:
Sp, ba, ar = permissible
Zx, qf, tb = not permissible

168
Q

Morphology

A

Rule system that governs how words are formed in a language

169
Q

Morpheme

A 
Smallest unit of meaning
Can be and often is more than one letter
Means something even alone
Can be full words, prefixes, suffixes
"do" = 1 morpheme
"doing" = 2 morphemes
"ex-" "-tion" "house" "-er" "pre-" "jump"
Mean-ing = 2
Kill-ed = 2
Toad = 1
Birth-day = 2
Ex-boy-friend = 3
Sparrow-s = 2
170
Q

Syntax

A

The ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences
“The boy chased the dog”
“The dog chased the boy”
Same 5 words, but mean opposite of each other
Can get confusing when proper syntax isn’t used
Grammar
Rules vary across languages
“Bunny is gorping on duck”
Using made up word - child still understands that order matters

171
Q

Semantics

A

The meaning of words and sentences
Full words or phrases
“Crash” - car accident, stocks crashed, crash party, sound of waves crashing
“Boy” vs. “man” - semantically similar: male human, semantically different: age

172
Q

Pragmatics

A

The appropriate use of language in different contexts
Altering communication with different partners
Taking turns in conversation (turn taking, visible in children)
Vary from culture to culture (conventions, saying thank you) - thank friend who makes dinner vs. mom
Understanding language and social context
Talk differently to teacher vs. friends vs. parents
Thank you vs. thanks (difference in formality)
What is appropriate with that certain person

173
Q

Stages of infant in pre-language vocalizations

A

Crying: from birth (only way to communicate needs)
Cooing: at 1-2 months, gurgling, back of throat noises
Babbling: around 6 months, pronunciation of vowel combinations (mama, dada, gaga)
Deaf babies “babble” at the same time as hearing, only if exposed to a sign language (babble with their hands)

174
Q

Categorical phoneme perception

A

/pa/ vs. /ba/
pa pa pa pa pa pa ba ba ba ba ba
Infants can tell one sound from another

175
Q

Infants abilities

A

All phonemes before 6 months

Specialize: 6-12 months

176
Q

Neural plasticity/pruning

A

More efficient networks

177
Q

Statistical learning

A

Pret-ty ba-by

178
Q

Language in infancy

A

Comprehension before production
First word: between 10-15 months - concrete nouns and important people, “ball” “mama” “car” “dog” “dada”
Language “spurt:” 13-24 months
Telegraphic speech: 18-24 months old, “more milk” “mama walk” “want ball”

179
Q

Language in early childhood

A

Full sentences: 2-3 years old
Produce all consonant and vowel sounds: 3 years old
Understanding of morphological rules also increases
Wugs
18 months-6 years: one word per waking hour
14,000 words by first grade
Fast mapping: word learning after a single exposure
Theory of mind and pragmatics: things in view, things that happened in past, taking turns
Understanding of pragmatics improve

180
Q

Language in middle childhood

A

Metalinguistic awareness: knowledge about language, thinking about language, understanding what a “noun” is vs. an “adjective”, able to think about what words are and define them
14,000 words at 6 –> 40,000 words at 11
Understanding complex comparisons and subjunctives (“shallower” vs. “deeper”, “if I were president..”)
Understand more complex grammar - “the boy who kissed his mother wore a hat he got from her”

181
Q

Language in adolescence (teenagers)

A

Better abstract thinkers - able to reflect on a word’s purpose in a sentence
Understanding metaphors
Using sarcasm and satire
Teenage “dialect” (slang words)
Words don’t always literally mean what they say

Child Psych (4 decks)

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