Child Psych Midterm 1 Flashcards
(221 cards)
1
Q
Visual Preference
A
Infants look at different things for different lengths of time
2
Q
Visual Preference Findings
A
Patterns over solids, faces over non-faces
3
Q
Habituation
A
Present one stimulus many times, infant gets bored, “habituates” and stops attending, researcher provides a different stimulus, infant either remains inattentive or re-engages
Re-engage= dishabituation
4
Q
Sensation
A
Reaction that occurs when stimuli contact the sensory receptors (physically feeling touch)
5
Q
Perception
A
Interpretation of sensation (interpreting touch and recognize as mother)
6
Q
The Ecological View
A
Elanor and James Gibson, individuals directly perceive information that is present in the world around them (passive view), purpose of perception, Affordances: opportunities for interaction offered by objects (developmentally dependent)
7
Q
Visual Acuity
A
Poor at birth and improves through 1st year, trouble tracking, faces
8
Q
Perceptual Constancy
A
Sensory stimulation changes but perception of the physical world remains constant
9
Q
Size Constancy
A
Recognition that an object remains the same size even though the retinal image of the object changes
10
Q
Shape Constancy
A
Recognition that an object remains the same shape even though its orientation toward us changes
11
Q
Touch in Infants
A
Reach to touches: rooting, feel pain
12
Q
Smell in Infants
A
Newborns differentiate odors, prefer mom’s smell, facial expressions
13
Q
Taste in Infants
A
Facial expressions, preferences
14
Q
Intermodal Perception
A
Integrating information from two or more sensory modalities, orienting to a sound, matching sound and picture
15
Q
Piaget
A
Children as “little scientists,” Schemes: children seek to construct an understanding of the world (actions of mental representations that organize knowledge, child continually takes in information to update preexisting schemes)
16
Q
Schemes
A
Presented with new information, child modifies mental representations
17
Q
Adaptation
A
Children are presented with new environmental demands, must use and adapt their schemes through assimilation or accommodation
18
Q
Assimilation
A
Children incorporate new information into existing schemes (calls dog funny looking cat)
19
Q
Accommodation
A
Children adjust their schemes to fit new information and experiences (knows difference between cars and motorcycles)
20
Q
Equilibration
A
Child experiences conflict, cognitive conflict= disequilibrium, assimilation and accommodation resolve conflict (take child to a higher ground) (tall glass of water looks like more than wide)
21
Q
Piaget’s 4 Stages of Development
A
Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage (move to next stage by resolving conflict)
22
Q
Sensorimotor Stage
A
Birth - 2 years
Infants coordinate sensory experiences with motor movements; gain knowledge of world from physical actions they perform on it
Simple reflexes, first habits and primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of secondary circular reactions, tertiary circular reactions, internalization of schemes
23
Q
Object Permanence
A
Develops near end of sensorimotor stage, objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched
24
Q
A not B Error
A
Piaget proposed this due to the infant believing that the process of searching behind A results in the object being found at A, failure in understanding object permanence
25
Infant Expectations
Babies know more about the world than Piaget gives them credit (3-4 months form expectations about future events, 5 months understand "number concepts")
26
Core Knowledge Approach
Infants are born with "domain specific knowledge systems"
Space, number sense, object permanence, language
Prewired so infants can make sense of world
Provides foundation for more mature cognitive development
27
Preoperational Stage
2-7 years of age, children represent the world with words, images, drawings
Stable concepts, mental reasoning, egocentrism
Children do not yet have "operations"
Symbolic function, intuitive thought
28
Egocentrism
Inability to distinguish from one's own perspective and another's perspective
29
Animism
Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike quality, capable of action
30
Centration
Awareness that altering an object's or substance's appearance does not change the basic properties
31
Concrete Operational Stage
7-11 years of age, characterized by logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning for concrete examples (i.e. still had difficulty with abstract logical reasoning)
32
Conservation
Children understand that environmental manipulations do not always alter the number, matter, length of the objects they are presented with
33
Horizontal Decalage
Similar abilities do not appear at same time (e.g. number conservation is usually learned first)
34
Classification
Children can classify objects and consider their relationships, children understand interrelationships among sets and subsets, seriation, transitivity
35
Seriation
Ordering stimuli based on a quantitative dimension (e.g. length)
36
Transitivity
Logically combining relationships
| Michael is taller than Maria, Maria is taller than Jeff, child then understands that Michael is taller than Jeff
37
Formal Operational Stage
11-15 years of age, children move beyond concrete operations and can think in more abstract and logical ways, characterized by thinking beyond what is concrete: thinking about thought, desires, future
38
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
Develop hypotheses, systematically deduce, or conclude, how to best solve a problem
39
Adolescent Egocentrism
Heightened self consciousness, belief in sense of uniqueness, belief in invincibility
40
Imaginary Audience
Feeling like the center of everyone's attention, as if on a stage
41
Personal Fable
Adolescent's sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility
42
Piaget's Contributions
Current vision that children are active thinkers
Schemes, assimilation, accommodation, object permanence, egocentrism, conversation, ect.
Idea that children form cognitive frameworks, which they fit their ideas into
Cognitive change happens gradually
43
Piaget and Education
Constructivist approach, facilitate learning, consider children' developmental level, promote student's "intellectual health," make classroom a place of exploration
44
Criticism of Piaget
Estimates of child competence, stages of development, effects of training, effects of culture and education
45
Vygotsky
Believed that children are active thinkers, social creatures, and are shaped by their culture
Social constructivist approach
Less about the individual, more about collaboration
46
Zone of Proximal Development
Children can complete tasks that are too difficult to accomplish on their own with assistance
Skilled peers, adults help children move beyond the "zone" of what they can accomplish independently
47
Scaffolding
The level of support a child is given changes, based on the child's ability
Person scaffolding helps organize the child's thoughts
48
Private Speech
Tool that children use to solve problems, use for self-regulation (plan, monitor behavior), internalize inner speech
49
Teaching Strategies
Assess the child's ZPD, use child's ZPD in teaching, use more skilled peers as teachers, monitor and encourage private speech, create a meaningful context for instruction
50
Tools of the Mind
Focuses on building self-regulation skills in children through dramatic play, cues, etc.
Children who are better able to self-regulate are better able to learn
51
Criticism of Vygotsky
Not specific about age related changes, not specific in how socioemotional capability contribute to cognitive development, overemphasizes the role of language in thinking, facilitators may also be detrimental
52
Differential Susceptibility
Individuals vary in the degree that they are impacted by their experiences and the quality of their environment
53
Dandelion and Orchid
Tom Boyce and Bruce Ellis
Dandelion children seem to do okay in almost any environment
Orchid children thrive under good care, wilt under poor
54
Depression and 5HTTPLTR
Serotonin transporter gene
Long and short alleles
l/l: generally lower incidence of depression both in individuals with greater or fewer stressors
s/s: generally greater incidence of depression, only in individuals who experience significant life stress
55
Prenatal Development
Begins with fertilization and ends with birth
Typically 38-40 weeks
Divided into 3 periods- germinal, embryonic, fetal
56
Germinal Period
First two weeks after conception
Rapid cell development
Cell specialization beginning
Blastocyst: inner layer of cells --> embryo
Trophoblast: outer of blastocyst --> placenta
57
Embryonic Period
2-8 weeks after conception
Blastocyst attaches to uterine wall (11-15 days after conception)
After attachment= embryo
Cell differentiation
Organogenesis: process of organ formation, by the time mothers know they are pregnant, organs have already started to form and are vulnerable to the environment
58
Embryo
3 layers
Endoderm: inner layer- digestive, respiratory systems
Mesoderm: middle layer- circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory system, reproductive system
Ectoderm: outermost layer- nervous system, brain, sensory receptions, skin parts
59
Placenta
Organ that connects fetus to uterine wall, barrier between mother and fetus, small blood vessels from mother and fetus intertwine
60
Umbilical Cord
Connects fetus and placenta
61
Amnion
"Bag" with clear fluid (amniotic fluid) in which embryo floats
62
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
Chorion is a membrane between fetus and mother, consists of embryonic mesoderm and layers of the trophoblast
Genetic material in these cells same as in fetus'
63
Fetal Period
2 months after conception, lasts 7 months
Fetus becomes active, moving arms, legs, mouth and head
Genitals can be identified as male or female
6 months- fetus has a grasping reflex, is viable
64
Brain Development
Neurogenesis: rapid formation of neurons
At birth, babies have about 100 billion nerves
Basic "brain architecture" assembled during first two trimesters of prenatal development
3rd trimester, first 2 years of postnatal life characterized by building connectivity between neurons
Nervous system forms (beginning 18-24 days after conception)
Anencephaly: head of neural tube fails to close
Spina bifida: failure of neural tube to close in other location
Importance of folic acid
65
Teratogen
Any agent that can cause a birth defect or negatively impact cognitive development
Estimated that half of deficits noticeable at birth
May be others not visible (behavioral teratology)
Alcohol, caffeine, diet pills, antibiotics, cocaine, pollution, stress
66
Effects of teratogens on development depend on:
Dose (extent of much), duration (length of exposure) and individual susceptibility
Probability of a structural defect greatest early in the embryonic period, when organs are being formed.
Each body structure has its own critical period of formation
After organogenesis, teratogens less likely to cause anatomical defects
Exposure during the fetal period is more likely to stunt growth or to create problems in the way organs function
67
Caffeine
FDA recommends against but no strong evidence suggesting there will be increased risk of miscarriage, congenital malformations or growth retardation
68
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders
Facial deformities, defective limbs, heart problems, cognitive difficulties, estimate: 20% of children exposed to some alcohol in utero
IQ, learning attention
Small head, flat mid face, smooth philtrum, low nasal bridge, small eye openings, short nose, thin upper lip
69
Guidelines for Drinking while pregnant
US/Canada: avoid drinking, no known safe amount
UK: women should avoid drinking alcohol, but if they are going to drink, no more than one or two units of alcohol once or twice a week
70
Controversy
"Expecting Better" by Emily Oster
Claims that recommendations are not based on research (e.g. dont drink coffee, exercise, dont drink alcohol)
Encourages women to "take back" their pregnancies
Effect in the media
71
Cocaine
During 1980's and 1990's concern about "crack epidemic" and "crack baby generation"
Concerns about vast developmental delays, emotional difficulties, behavioral problems
Initial studies: small sample size, confounding variables (e.g. poverty)
Evidence for: reduced birth weight, length, head circumference, learning disabilities
72
Environment
X-Ray radiation
| Environmental pollutants: carbon monoxide, mercury, lead, fertilizers, pesticides
73
Other Considerations
Occasional drinking, antidepressant use, secondhand smoke (reduced lung capacity)
74
Disease in Mother
Maternal diseases and infections
Can produce defects in offspring by crossing placental barrier or cause damage during birth
Rubella, syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS, diabetes
75
HIV/AIDs Risk to Fetus/Infant
```
During gestation (across the placenta)
During delivery: contact between maternal and infant blood
Postpartum: breast feeding
```
76
HIV/AIDs Prevention in Fetus/Infant
Mother takes antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy, labor, and delivery
Delivery: Caesarian section
No breastfeeding
77
Maternal Diet and Nutrition
Fetus depends on mother's caloric and nutritional intake
Malnourishment: may lead to malformations
Overweight: may have more complications during pregnancy (hypertension, respiratory complications, infections in mother)
Consumption of fish: concerns about mercury
78
Maternal Age
Two "risky" groups: adolescence and 35 years and older
Adolescence: increased mortality rate
35 years and older: increased risk for fetal death, low birth weight, preterm delivery, down syndrome
79
Stress
High levels of stress, anxiety, depression during birth associated with:
Children with emotional problems
Children with behavioral problems
Preterm birth
80
Paternal Factors
Age: increased incidence of autism when father is older, related to gene mutation in older males
Environment: support for mother, drinking, smoking
81
Prenatal Care
Acquiring information about pregnancy, labor, delivery, caring for the newborn, regular visits with OBGYN
82
Stage 1 of Birth
Contractions dilate the cervix so baby can move to birth canal
Uterine contractions begin at 15-20 min
Become closer together (every couple min)
Cervix dilates to about 10cm
83
Stage 2 of Birth
Pushing baby out of body
Bearing down with every contraction
Stage in which baby enters world
Takes about 45 min
84
Stage 3 of Birth
Expelling of after birth (placenta, umbilical cord, etc.)
| Takes several minutes
85
Analgesia
Pain relief via tranquilizers, barbiturates, narcotics
86
Anesthesia
Loss of feeling/sensation, often used in late first-stage labor, epidural= local anesthetic
87
Natural Childbirth
Educate parents on how to be involved in birthing process
Teach relaxation methods to increase involvement; active participants
Mother awake and cooperative
Prepared childbirth/Lamaze method- special breathing technique for pushing in final stages of labor
88
Caesarean Section
Incision made in mother's abdomen, delivery method for babies that are breech, prolonged labor, fetal distress, medical condition of fetus or mother, size of fetus, multiple births
89
Apgar Scale
```
Used within 1-5 minutes of baby's birth
Rate the health of the infant
7-10= good
5= some problems
3 or below= signals emergency
```
90
Complications
Preterm: born before 37 weeks gestation
Low birth weight: 5 1/2 pounds
Small for date infants- risk health problems and death
91
Caring for Preterm Infants
Kangaroo care: baby wearing only a diaper, held against parent, 2-3 hours a day, focus on skin to skin contact
92
After Pregnancy
Large alterations in hormone production, physical adjustments, fatigue
70% of women experience "baby blues"
93
Postpartum Depression
Major depressive episode, typically occurring about 4 weeks after pregnancy
Symptoms: trouble coping with day-to-day activities, mood swings, anxiety, sadness, tearful, decreased concentration, hopelessness, difficulty sleeping
94
Postpartum Psychosis
```
Psychotic symptoms (paranoia, hallucinations) post childbirth
Symptoms: delusions or strange beliefs, hallucinations, feeling very irritated, hyperactivity, decreased need for or inability to sleep, paranoia, rapid mood swings, difficulty communicating at times
```
95
When to Seek Help
Having thoughts of harming self or baby
Lasting longer than 2 weeks
Symptoms worsening
Having difficulty caring for self or baby
96
Cephalocaudal
Growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation moves from top to bottom
97
Proximodistal
Growth moves from the center of the body to the extremities
98
Physical Growth: Infancy to Adolescence
Most rapid and dramatic in infancy- doubles birth weight by 4 months, tripled birth weight by age 1
Slows down in early and middle childhood- percentage increase in height and weight decreases each year, gain 5-7 pounds per year, "calm before the storm," change in proportions: growth of trunks and extremities, increase muscle, decrease fat
99
Puberty
Not adolescence
| Wide range for onset: trend toward earlier onset
100
Precocious Puberty
Very early onset and rapid progression of puberty
101
Influences on Puberty
Nature vs. Nurture
102
Hormones
Chemical substance secreted by the endocrine glands and carried in the blood: interaction of hypothalamus, pituitary, and gonads
103
Androgens
Male sex hormones
104
Estrogens
Female sex hormones
105
Sexual Maturation
Males: testicular development, penis elongation, pubic hair
Females: breast and hip growth, pubic hair, menarche
Psychological changes
106
Neuroplasticity
Brain is capable of changes in response to experience
107
Brain Growth in Infancy
Experiences "wire" the brain at a rapid rate
| 25% at birth --> 75% at 2 years
108
Brain Growth in Childhood
Not as rapid as infancy
| Changing patterns, not size
109
Brain Growth in Adolescence
Continued pruning, emphasis on efficiency
| Other areas still maturing
110
Sleep in Infancy
Newborns: 16-17 hours a day (decreases and becomes more regular with time)
More REM
"Face up to wake up" - reduced instance of SIDS, no soft bedding
111
Sleep in Childhood
2-6 years: 11-13 hours per night
6-12 years: 10-11 hours per night
Uninterrupted sleep
Sleep --> developmental outcomes (alcohol and attention problems)
112
Sleep in Adolescence
8-10 hours per day
9 hours 25 minutes
Adults: 7-8
Shift in melatonin release now 1 hour later
113
Nutrition in the 1st 6 Months
Milk for the first 4-6 months
| Breast feeding on the rise
114
Breastfeeding Benefits
Gastrointestinal, ear infections, skin problems and respiratory, obesity and SIDS, less expensive
115
Breastfeeding Cons
Difficult for working mothers, single dads, and gay couples, passing dangerous substances
116
Nutrition in Infancy
Milk for first 4-6 months
| 50 calories per day per pound
117
Nutrition in Childhood
Predictable schedule, modeling healthy eating, and making meal times pleasant
Childhood obesity
118
Exercise
2 hours per day
| Cognitive benefits
119
Reflexes
Built in reactions to stimuli
Beyond the infants control
Thought to be survival mechanisms
120
Rooting Reflex
Stimuli: newborn's cheek is touched, mouth stroked
Reflex: newborn moves head to the respective side
121
Sucking Reflex
Stimuli: object in infant's mouth
Reflex: newborn automatically sucks object
122
Moro Reflex (Startle Reflex)
Stimuli: sudden, intense noise or movement
Reflex: newborn startles (arches back, throws back head, flings out arms and legs, cries)
123
Grasping Reflex (planter, palmer)
Stimuli: something touches newborns hands or feet
Reflex: newborn grasps hand or scrunches toes
124
Dynamic Systems View
Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting
Motor movements as means to reach goals
Spontaneous self-organization of various components in the system
Emergent product of the mix is different and greater than the sum of its component parts
125
Esther Thelen
Babies reach major milestones through different paths
Not just a genetic component - environmental factors, motivational factors (nature/nurture)
Walking is a "year in the making"
126
Gross Motor Skills
Involve large muscle activities, like moving arms and legs
Posture control is the foundation - involves incorporating sensory and vestibular information with muscle control/strength
127
Specificity of Learning
Infants who have experience with one mode of locomotion don't appreciate the dangers of another mode
128
Importance of Practice
Variations in terrain, help children realize the combination of strength and balance required
129
Perceptual- Motor Coupling
Perceptual system to coordinate grasping depends on age
4 months- touch
8 months- vision
130
Crawling
Typically 7-10 months
Experience matters: role of pediatricians encouraging back sleeping
Culture
131
Walking
Typically 11-14 months
Locomotion and postural control: balance/shift weight as alternating steps, young infants possess ability to alternate steps
Use experiences to determine what surfaces/slopes are safe
132
2nd Year Motor Development
13-18 months: climbing steps
| 18-24 months: walk quickly or run stiffly (short distances), balance on feet when squatting, kick a ball, jump in place
133
Developmental Changes at 3 Years
Pride in performing simple movements
134
Developmental Changes at 4-5 Years
Similar activities, more adventurous
135
Developmental Changes at 9-10 Years
Becoming more coordinated, increased interest in organized sport
136
Physical Activity
Need for physical activity: young children fatigued by sitting still
Recommended: 15 min break for every 2 hours sitting still
137
Positives of Sports
Encourage children to be active
Encourage development of gross motor skills
Provide opportunity for social growth
Can promote self esteem
138
Negatives of Sports
Pressure to achieve
Physical injuries
Distract from academics
139
Fine Motor Development
Tasks that require dexterity with fingers: grasping a toy, using a spoon, buttoning a shirt, writing
Exercising skills: enthusiasm and pride in demonstrating abilities
Infancy: infant refine how they reach and grasp, begins with moving wrists, rotate hands, coordinate finger movement
140
Palmer Grasp
Grip with whole hand- 4 months
141
Pincer Grasp
Thumb and forefinger- 8-12 months
142
"Sticky Mittens"
Premise: 2-3 month old infants are able to swipe arms past object but not grasp
Researchers put "sticky mittens" on infants
Infants able to explore object (visually, orally)
143
Development of Fine Motor Skills
3 year olds: build high towers with blocks, pick up very small objects (clumsily)
4 year olds: more precision, improved hand eye coordination
5 year olds: more complex tasks
6 year olds: capable of using a hammer, tie shoes, fasten buttons on clothes
8-10 year olds: improvements in handwriting, writing cursive
10-12 year olds: begin to show manipulative skills similar to adults
144
Myelination
Myelin increases speed and strength of nerve impulses
| More myelination: as children develop, as children practice skills
145
Assessing Fine Motor Skills
Grooved pegboard
Fingertip tapping
Imitating hand positions
Block building (very young children)
146
Evolution
Change in inherited characteristics of biological processes over time (generations)
147
Natural Selection
Evolutionary process by which species that are better adapted are the ones that survive and reproduce
Driven by adaptation - getting genes into the next generation
148
"Rapid Evolution" - Ecology Example
Peter and Rosemary Grant: studied finches in the Galapagos Islands, climate changes altered food supply, finches lived or died based on which species beak structure was best adapted for the most abundant food
149
Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
Examples:
Humans have extended childhood period, may be related to large brain, needing to learn the complexity of human societies
Mind may have been evolved to solve some problems more readily- modules for finding food, shelter, mathematical knowledge (for trading items)
150
Evolution and Environment
"One-sided evolution" - Albert Bandura: social functioning is not just evolved biology
Humans evolve, impact their environment, which in turn impacts their evolutionary course
Traits are selected for based on environmental demands but many traits have a biological basis (DNA)
151
DNA
Complex molecule, double helix shape
Contains genetic information
Each gene has a particular location on a chromosome
Genotype refers to a person: genetic composition/DNA
152
Protein
Proteins are the end product
Requires transcription, translation
Error in any step can impact protein expression (i.e. no protein produced, different protein produced)
Phenotype: observable characteristic
153
Human Genome Project
Sequence the human genome and identify the genes that it contains
Goal: provide a complete and accurate sequence of the 3 billion DNA base pairs that comprise the human genome and find all 20,000 to 25,000 estimated genes (originally expected 100,000 genes)
154
Gene Expression
Genotype vs. Phenotype
Gene expression depends on environment
Example: stress - increases the expression of inflammatory genes; related to diseases (e.g. cardiovascular disease, cancer)
Example: exposure to radiation may change rate of DNA synthesis; related to cancer
155
Meiosis
```
Cell division that forms eggs and sperm
Cells in testes or ovaries:
1. Duplicates chromosomes
2. Divides twice
3. Forms 4 cells, each containing half of the original genetic material (23 unpaired chromosomes)
```
156
Fertilization
```
Egg and sperm fuse to create single cell
23 chromosomes
23rd pair determines sex
XX- female
XY - male
```
157
Monozygotic Twins
Identical twins
| "Single zygote" splits into two genetically identical replicas
158
Dizygotic Twins
Fraternal twins
| "Two zygotes" (two separate eggs fertilized by teo separate sperm)
159
Dominant-Recessive Genes Principle
Dominant allele expressed over a recessive allele
Allele= different versions of the same gene
Only chance a recessive allele will be expressed is it there are two of them
Co-dominance both alleles are expressed
160
Tay-Sachs Disease
Autosomal recessive disease
Progressive degeneration of nerve cells
Infants appear to develop normally until 3-6 months then losses motor functions, sight, hearing, ability to swallow
Death usually occurs by age 4 (for infantile type)
161
X Chromosome Linked Disease
Some disorders linked to specifically to the X chromosome
162
Fragile X Syndrome
Abnormality in the X chromosome
| Prominent ears, long face, high arched palate, soft skin, intellectual disability
163
Klinefelter Syndrome
Males have extra X chromosome (XXY)
Undeveloped testes, enlarged breasts, tall, impairment in language, academic functioning, attentional skills, motor abilities
164
Down Syndrome
Extra copy of chromosome 21
| Flattened skull, extra fold of skin over eyelids, short limbs, intellectual disabilities, motor disabilities
165
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Genetic disorder - unable to properly metabolize phenylanine (an amino acid)
Easily detected today, routine to screen at birth
Treated by diet that prevents excess accumulation of phenylanine
Untreated - causes intellectual disability, hyperactivity
Nature- Nurture interacting: same genotype has different phenotypes depending on environment
166
Sickle Cell Anemia
Genetic disorder impairs functioning of red blood cells
Usually shaped like a disk, recessive gene causes "sickle" shape
Cannot carry oxygen properly, cell dies quickly
Example of co-dominance
167
Ultrasound/Sonography
Seven weeks into pregnancy (other times throughout)
Echo from sound waves transformed into visual representation
Obtain a visual representation of the fetus' inner structure; detect abnormalities
168
Fetal MRI
Can be used for more detailed understanding/more detailed image
169
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
Performed between 9.5-12.5 weeks of pregnancy
Used to detect genetic defects and chromosomal abnormalities
Involves taking small sample of the placenta
Can be used to determine sex of the fetus
170
Amniocentesis
Performed between 14th-20th weeks of pregnancy
Sample of amniotic fluid withdrawn with syringe
Test for chromosomal or metabolic disorder
171
Maternal Blood Screening
Performed between 16th to 18th weeks of pregnancy
| Identifies pregnancies with elevated risk for birth defects (e.g. spina bifida)
172
Noninvasive Prenatal Diagnosis
Techniques like examining fetal cells circulating in mother's blood
173
Uses of Genetic Information
Benefits of these methods include: early detection of disease, birth defects, etc.
174
Adoption
The earlier the better
Guidelines: better developmental outcomes at 12 months of age or earlier
Changes in adoption
Who is adopted: used to be white, non-latino infants; now more international adoptions, interracial adoptions
Who is adopting: used to be married couples who were infertile, now single parents, gay parents
175
Behavior Genetics
Study of the extent to which people vary on a certain phenotype (e.g. personality, intelligence) due to differences in genes, environment or a combination of these factors
176
Heritability
Population concept- does not tell us about the individual
Depends on the range of typical environments in the population that is studied
If environment is uniform, heritability may be high (genes account for more variation)
If wide range of environments, heritability may be low
177
Twin Studies
Behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared to behavioral similarity of fraternal twins
Fraternal twins no more genetically similar than siblings but share the same environment (including same womb)
178
Adoption Studies
```
Investigators try to determine whether adopted children:
Are more like biological parents
Are more like adoptive parents
Compare to biological siblings
Compare to adoptive siblings
```
179
Hereditary Environment Conditions
Correlations between hereditary factors and environmental factors complicate behavioral genetic studies
180
Passive Genotype-Environment Correlation
Children inherent genetic tendencies from their parents, and parents provide an environment that complements their own genetic tendencies
Best for infants
181
Evocative Genotype-Environment Correlation
Children genetically influenced traits evoke certain reactions from the environment
Good for infants or adolescents
182
Active Genotype-Environment Correlation
Children seek out environments that are best suited for them
| Best for adolescents- decision making
183
Epigenetics
Development is the result of on-going, bidirectional interchange between hereditary and environment
184
G x E Interactions
5HTTPLPR (serotonin transporter gene)
Long and short alleles
Short alleles were a risk factor for later depression only in the event of other stressful life events
185
Differential Susceptibility
"Plasticity Alleles"
| Individuals vary in the degree that they are impacted by their experiences and the quality of their environment
186
Domains: A Baby Smiling in Response to her Father's Touch
Biological: the baby feels the touch on her skin
Cognitive: the baby understands the intentional acts
Social: the smile reflects the baby's positive emotion and builds the social relationship between daughter and father
187
Domains: A Toddler Begins to Walk
Biological: the toddler has enough muscle strength to support upright locomotion
Cognitive: the toddler is now able to use his hands to manipulate objects enabling him to learn more
Social: the toddler is better able to meet some needs (e.g. getting a toy on the other side of the room) but needs more help with others (e.g. navigating stairs and dangerous terrain)
188
Prenatal
Conception to birth
189
Infancy
Birth to 18-24 months
190
Early Childhood
End of infancy to 5 or 6 years
191
Middle Childhood
End of early childhood until puberty (AKA elementary school years)
192
Adolescence
From the onset of puberty until adulthood (18-19 years)
193
Nature vs. Nurture Debate
Is development primarily influenced by nature or nurture? What's more important? A child's genes? Or the way they are raised?
194
Nature
One's biological inheritance
Analogy: a sunflower will grow in an orderly way unless it is exposed to very bad environment
Most children, except in extreme cases of abuse or neglect, develop in similar ways (e.g. burst of hormones at puberty)
195
Nurture
One's environmental experiences
"Give me a dozen healthy infants..."
A child from a wealthy suburb in America vs. a child from a poor village in sub-Saharan Africa
196
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
The debate: to what extent does development involve gradual, cumulative changes vs. abrupt changes and distinct stages?
197
Continuity
Gradual changes, differ quantitatively, a slowly growing oak tree
198
Discontinuity
Abrupt changes, differ qualitatively, a caterpillar --> butterfly
199
Early vs. Later Experience
The debate: are earlier experiences or later experiences more important for development?
200
Early Experience
Early experiences (i.e. infancy) are so critical that they cannot be overridden by later environmental changes
201
Later Experience
Experiences after infancy are more or at least equally important to development
202
Research Methods
Different ways to collect data
203
Research Designs
Different ways of addressing or answering questions
204
Observation
A systematic way of watching behavior unfold
205
Interview
Asking participants directly about their thoughts, attitudes, or opinions using open ended questions
206
Survey/Questionnaire
Asking participants directly about their thoughts, attitudes, or opinions using standardized, closed answer questionnaires. There is no "right answer"
207
Standardized Test
Measure w/ uniform procedures for administering and scoring. There is a "right answer." Scored compared to others' performance
208
Case Study
In depth look at a single individual and all the factors that contribute to their unique circumstance
Used most by mental health professionals
Be careful with generalization
209
Physiological Measures
Measuring biological factors directly
| E.g. heart rate, skin conductance, hormone levels, brain activity via fMRI or EEG
210
Research Design: Descriptive
Examples:
Babies tend to babble before they say full words
As children age, they tend to spend more time with their friends and less time with their parents
Girls typically engage in fewer physically aggressive acts during play than boys do
No causality implied
211
Research Design: Correlational
Describes the strength of the relationship between two variables
No causality implied
212
Caution: Spurious Correlations
As children's shoe size goes up, so does their intelligence (children's age)
The city's ice cream sales are highest when the rates of drowning in pools and lakes is highest (temperature)
As the number of grocery stores in a city goes up, so does the number of homicides (population density)
213
Research Design: Experimental
A carefully regulated procedure in which one of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied is manipulated while all other factors are help constant
Independent variable: manipulated in experiment
Dependent variable: result of the manipulation
Random assignment: participants are randomly assigned to either control or experimental groups
Can determine causality
214
Cross-Sectional
Individuals of different ages measured at the same time
| E.g. one group of 6 year olds and one group of 9 year olds both tested in 2014
215
Longitudinal
The same individuals are studied at different time points
E.g. one group of 6 year olds is tested in 2014 and then the same group of kids is tested again in 2017 when they are 9 years old
216
A 5 month old infant interprets a loud sound as a potential threat and flinches in response. This is an example of:
Perception
217
A ball is thrown at a 4 year old. As that ball gets closer to the child, the image on the child's retina gets larger and larger, yet the child realized the ball isn't growing rapidly in size. This child has mastered:
Size constancy
218
Piaget noted that preoperational children have difficulty with centration. This means:
Children believe that altering an object's appearance changes it's basic properties
219
Discuss three criticisms of Piaget's cognitive theory of development
Doesn't take culture into account
Small sample size
Stages of development instead of gradual
220
During which period of fetal development is exposure to teratogens most likely to cause a physical deformity?
Embryonic period
221
Explain how dynamic systems theory can be applied to children's motor development
Dynamic systems theory: child's readiness to explore, importance of goals, self organization within infant happening spontaneously
Motor development: walking is a year in the making, smaller goals before they are ready to walk
