Midterm 3 Flashcards
1
Q
attributes of friendships
A
affection, communion, companionship, respect, trust, capitalization, social support, responsiveness
2
Q
friendship
A
a voluntary, personal relationship, typically providing intimacy and assistance, in which the two parties like one another and seek each other’s company
3
Q
affection in friendships
A
they like, trust, and respect each other, and the value loyalty and authenticity, with both of them feeling free to be themselves without pretense
4
Q
communion
A
partners give and receive meaningful self-disclosures, emotional support, and practical assistance, and they observe a norm of equality, with both partners’ preferences being valued
5
Q
companionship
A
share interests and activities and consider each other to be sources of recreation
6
Q
social norms that regulate friendships are…
A
less confining than those that govern romantic relationships
7
Q
capitalization
A
the tendency to share good news with friends and receive enthusiastic, rewarding responses that increase our pleasure and enhance our relationships
8
Q
social support
A
ways in which our intimate partners uplift us and provide us aid
9
Q
types of social support
A
emotional support, physical comfort, advice support, material support
10
Q
emotional support
A
form of affection, acceptance, and reassurance
11
Q
physical comfort
A
form of hugs and cuddling
12
Q
advice support
A
form of information and guidance
13
Q
material support
A
tangible assistance in the form of money or goods
14
Q
complexities involved in the manner in which social support operates in close relationships
A
- emotional support has real physiological effects and mental health benefits
- effective social support leads people to feel closer to those who provide it
- some people are better providers of social support than others are
- the best support fits our needs and preferences
- it’s not what people do for us but what we think they do for us that matters
- our personal characteristics affect our perceptions of social support
15
Q
invisible support
A
support that is subtly provided without fanfare and actually goes unnoticed by the recipient; best help
16
Q
perceived partner responsiveness
A
the judgment that someone is attentive, respectful, caring, and supportive with respect to our needs and aspirations; powerfully rewarding; promotes intimacy, encouraging self-disclosure, trust, and interdependency
17
Q
rules for relationships
A
shared cultural beliefs about what behaviors friends should (and should not) perform
18
Q
friendship rules that appear to be universal
A
- trustworthy and loyal, having our best interests at heart
- confidants with whom we can share our secrets
- enjoyable and fun companions
- similar to us in attitudes and interests
- helpful, providing material support when we need it
19
Q
friendship in childhood
A
- preschool children have rudimentary friendships in which they have favorite playmates
- important change is children’s cognitive development –> as they age, they are increasingly able to appreciate others’ perspectives and to understand their wishes and points of view
20
Q
changes in interpersonal needs that accompany increasing cognitive sophistication in childhood
A
- acceptance in early elementary years
- intimacy in preadolescence
- sexuality during teen years
- the new needs are added on top of the others at each stage, so that older children have more needs to satisfy than younger children
- the successful resolution of each stages requires the development of specific competencies that affect the way a child handles later stages
21
Q
acceptance in elementary years
A
those who are not sufficiently accepted by their peers feel excluded
22
Q
intimacy in preadolescence
A
- typically focuses on a friend who is similar to them in age and interests
- when full-blown friendships characterized by extensive self-disclosure first emerge
- develop skills of perspective taking, empathy, and generosity
- children who were not previously accepted by others may overcome their sense of isolation, but if they cannot, they experience true loneliness for the first time
23
Q
sexuality during teen years
A
- typical adolescent develops an interest in the other sex
- most adolescents initially have difficulty satisfying their new emerging needs, but most manage to form sensitive, caring, and open sexual relationships later on
24
Q
friendship in adolescence
A
- teens spend less and less time with their families and more and more time with their peers
- increasingly turn to their friends for the satisfaction or important attachment needs
- the four components of attachment (proximity seeking, separation protest, safe haven, secure base) shift from parents to peers
25
friendship in young adulthood
- intimacy versus isolation
- learn how to form enduring, committed intimate relationships
- quality of teen friendships predicts how satisfying future romances will be
- after college, people tend to interact with fewer friends, but they have deeper, more interdependent relationships with the friends they have
26
friendship in midlife
- when people gain romantic partners, they spend less time with their families and friends
- dyadic withdrawal
- romantic couples tend to have more contact with friends they have in common
- further erosion of people's friendships as they get married
- focus of socializing shifts from personal friends to family and friends they share with their spouses
27
dyadic withdrawal
as people see more and more of a lover, they see less and less of their friends
28
friendship in old age
- elderly people have smaller social networks and fewer friends than younger people do
- socioemotional selectivity theory
- when people age and their futures seem more and more finite, they become oriented more toward the present than toward the future and they emphasize emotional fulfillment to a greater extent
29
socioemotional selectivity theory
elderly people shift overtime from a larger social network to a smaller one because they have different interpersonal goals than younger people do
30
gender differences in same-sex friendships
- women's friendships are usually characterized by emotional sharing and self-disclosure
- men's friendships revolve around shared activities, companionship, and competition
31
gender roles and sex differences in same-sex friendships
- men are fully capable of forming intimate friendships with other men when the circumstances support such closeness, but they generally choose not to do so because such intimacy is less socially acceptable among men than women
- androgynous men tend to have closer friendships than traditional men
- pressure on men to display more emotional constraint
32
individual differences in friendship
- sexual orientation
- self-concepts (relational self-construals)
33
relational self-construals
the extent to which we think of ourselves as interdependent, rather than independent, beings
- a high relational self-construal makes someone a desirable friend
34
other personality traits that have corrosive and deleterious effects on friendships
- narcissism
- Machiavellianism
- psychopathy
35
dark triad
narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy
36
narcissism
arrogant self-importance, entitlement, and selfishness that can make a good first impression but that quickly wears thin
37
Machiavellianism
think it's smart to take advantage of gullible fools; they're cynical, duplicitous, and manipulative and they readily lie to others if it helps them get what they want
38
psychopathy
bold, impulsive thrill-seekers who sometimes seem charming but who callously disregard others' feelings and well-being; rarely remorseful when they do others harm
39
two issues that stand in the way of making friendships
shyness and loneliness
40
shyness
syndrome that combines social reticence and inhibited behavior with nervous discomfort in social settings
41
when people are shy...
- they fret about social disapproval and unhappily anticipate unfavorable judgments from others
- they feel self-conscious, uncomfortable, and inept
- as a result, they interact with others in an impoverished manner
- act in an inhibited, guarded fashion
41
cycle of interpersonal effects of shyness
shy concern over others' evaluations --> timid, reticent, and awkward social behavior; low eye contact, low self-disclosure, and low responsiveness --> negative impressions on others; perceived to be aloof, unsociable, and unfriendly --> others' responses are less engaging, less self-disclosing, and more distant -->
41
three characteristics that distinguish chronically shy people from people who are shy less often
- fear negative evaluation from others
- poor self-regard
- lower levels of social skill
42
interpretations by others of shy people
timid, reserved, and hesitant behavior that characterizes shyness can seem aloof and unfriendly and is likely to be met by reactions from others that are less sociable and engaging
43
on occasion, shyness can be useful
when people are confronted with novel situations and don't know how to behave, brief bouts of shy caution may keep them from doing something inappropriate
44
loneliness
when there is an unhappy discrepancy between the number and quality of partnerships we want and those we have
45
social loneliness
being dissatisfied because we lack a social network of friends and acquaintances
46
emotional loneliness
being lonely because we lack affection and emotional support from at least one intimate relationship
47
UCLA loneliness scale
three themes:
- isolation --> lonely people feel alone and less in contact with others than they want to be
- close connection --> perceive their relationships with others to be less meaningful and close than they wish they were
- social connection --> feel that they have insufficient ties to a network of friends and playmates, so they get too little pleasure and social support from their interaction with others
48
excessive reassurance seeking
loneliness can lead to depression, which leads people to persistently probe for assurances that other like and accept them but doubt the sincerity of such declarations when they are received
49
predictors of loneliness
- personalities --> higher negative emotionality increases the chances one will be lonely
- insecure attachment
- low self-esteem
50
when people are lonely...
- their distress and desperation is evident in negative attitudes toward others
- tend to mistrust and dislike the people from whom they seek acceptance and regard
- perhaps as a result, their interactions are usually drab and dull
51
over the ages, attitudes toward love have varied on at least four dimensions
cultural value, sexuality, sexual orientation, marital status
52
Ancient Greece
admired platonic love, the nonsexual adoration of a beloved person that was epitomized by the feelings shared by two men
53
Ancient Egypt
people of royal blood often married their siblings
54
Ancient Rome
"the purpose of marriage was to produce children, make favorable alliances, and establish a bloodline"
55
courtly love
required knights to seek love as a noble quest, diligently devoting themselves to a lady of high social standing; explicitly adulterous: the male partner was expected to be unmarried and the female partner married to someone else
56
Middle Ages
marriage was a serious matter of politics and property
57
Robert Sternberg's three different building blocks that combine to form different types of love
intimacy, passion, commitment
58
intimacy
feelings of warmth, understanding, trust, support, and sharing that often characterizes loving relationships
59
passion
physical arousal and desire, excitement, and need
60
commitment
feelings of permanence, stability, and the decisions to devote oneself to a relationship and to work to maintain it
61
nonlove
intimacy, passion, and commitment are all absent; love does not exist; casual, superficial, uncommitted relationship between people who are probably just acquaintances
62
liking
intimacy is high but passion and commitment are very low; occurs in friendships with real closeness and warmth that do not arouse passion or the expectation that you will spend the rest of your life with that person
63
infatuation
strong passion in the absence of intimacy or commitment; what people experience when they are aroused by others they barely know
64
empty love
commitment without intimacy or passion
- in Western culture, this may occur in burned-out relationships
- in other cultures in which marriages are arranged, this may be the first stage
65
romantic love
when high intimacy and passion occur together
66
companionate love
intimacy and commitment combine to form love for a close companion; closeness, communication, and sharing are coupled with substantial investment in the relationship as the partners work to maintain a deep, long-term friendship
67
fatuous love
passion and commitment in the absence of intimacy; can occur in whirlwind courtships in which partners marry quickly on the basis of overwhelming passion but don't know each other very well
68
consummate love
intimacy, passion, and commitment are all present to a substantial degree
69
Helen Fisher argue it makes evolutionary sense for there to be three interrelated but distinct biological systems that control components of love experiences
lust, attraction, attachment
70
lust
regulated by sex hormones; drives successful reproduction by providing us the motivation to mate with others
71
attraction
promotes the pursuit of a particular preferred romantic partner; drives pair-bonding by fueling romantic love, which is regulated by dopamine
72
attachment
feelings of comfort, security, and connection to a long-term mate that keep a couple together long enough to protect and sustain their very young children; regulated by oxytocin
73
Dutton and Aron (1974) bridge experiment
- Sent attractive women to interview unaccompanied young men either in the middle of a spooky suspension bridge or on another bridge that was stable and just a few feet off the ground
- Men on the swaying suspension bridge were thinking sexier thoughts and were more likely to call the woman later at her home
- More attracted to her and the arousal by the dangerous bridge had fueled their interest in her
74
thought and romantic love
- our judgments are linked to romance
- people tend to hold rosy views of their relationship partners and their tendency to idealize and glorify their lovers is probably at a peak when they are most in love
- the moment romance enters the picture, people start ignoring or reinterpreting undesirable information about potential partners
75
self-expansion model
suggests that love causes our self-concepts to expand and change as our partners bring us new experiences and new roles and we gradually learn things about ourselves that we didn't know before
76
compassionate love
- altruistic care and concern for the wellbeing of one's partner
- involves empathy, selflessness, and sacrifice on behalf of the beloved
77
styles of loving
eros, ludus, storge, mania, agape, pragma
78
ludus
treats love as an uncommitted game; often fickle and (try to) have several different partners at once
79
eros
strong physical component; erotic lovers are likely to be heavily influenced by physical appearance and to believe in love at first sight
80
storge
leads people to de-emphasize strong emotion and to seek genuine friendships that gradually lead to real commitment
81
mania
demanding and possessive and full of vivid fantasy and obsession
82
agape
giving, altruistic, and selfless; treats love as a duty
83
pragma
practical and pragmatic; leads people to dispassionately seek partners who will logically be a good match for them
84
cultural differences in love
- areas of the brain that are activated when people see photos of their romantic partners are universal
- various types of love seem to operate similarly in diverse cultures
- Americans emphasize similarity and good looks of their partners while Chinese mention a desirable personality, others' opinions, and their own physical arousal
- romantic fantasies are more prominent in America where acknowledgements that one's partner is baffling and incomprehensible and that love itself is a mixed blessing are more common in China
- individualistic Western nations more likely to insist on love as a reason to marry than collective cultures
85
attachment styles in love
attachment dimensions of anxiety over abandonment and avoidance of intimacy are enormously important because they are associated with all of the elements of love: intimacy, passion, commitment, and caring
86
intimacy and attachment style
- secure attachment: generally have high regard for others, viewing them as trustworthy, dependable, and kind; tend to be more open with their partners, happily engaging in a lot of self-disclosure
- high in avoidance: typically view others with suspicion, perceiving them to be dishonest and undependable; tend to tell their partners relatively little about their feelings and desires
87
passion and attachment style
- avoidant of intimacy: more distance and detached and less passionate overall
- secure attachment: best most fulfilling sex
88
commitment and attachment style
secure people tend to be more committed to their partnerships than insecure people are
89
caring and caregiving and attachment style
- insecure people: less effective caregivers, providing less reassurance and leaving their partners less ease
- high in avoidance: behave more negatively and sometimes get angry when they are asked to provide comfort and consolation to a needy partner
90
age differences in love
- most people mellow as they get older
- older couples interact with less physical arousal but with more good cheer
91
gender differences in love
- overall, men and women are more similar than different when it comes to love
- experience the various types of love similarly
- men tend to be more avoidant of intimacy an less anxious about abandonment, tend to possess more romantic attitudes, more likely to believe in love at first sight, tend to fall in love faster, typically less discriminating
- women experience more intense and volatile emotions, more cautious than men when it comes to love
92
does love last?
- romantic love typically decreases after people marry
- worldwide, divorces occur more frequently in the fourth year of marriage than at any other time
93
why doesn't romantic love last?
- fantasy enhances romance; lovers tend to idealize their partners and minimize or ignore information that should give them pause; fantasy erodes with time and experience
- novelty adds excitement and energy to new loves; Coolidge effect
- arousal fades as time goes by
94
Coolidge effect
a biological phenomenon seen in animals, whereby males exhibit renewed sexual interest whenever a new female is introduced, even after sex with prior but still available sexual partners
95
hookups
sexual interactions with nonromantic partners that usually last one night and do not involve any expectation of a lasting relationship
96
attitudes about casual sex
- most people believe that sex between unmarried partners is fine as long as it occurs in the context of a committed, caring relationship
- both men and women usually have more positive than negative feelings after a hookup, but mixed feelings are common
- sexual double standard
97
sexual double standard
when men who have multiple sexual partners may be admired as "studs" while women with the same number of partners may be dismissed as "sluts"
98
attitudes about same-sex sexuality
two reasons for increased acceptance of same-sex marriage:
- gays and lesbians are more visible in public life than ever before (media)
- we understand same-sex sexuality much better than we used to
99
cultural differences in sexual attitudes
- in general, sexual attitudes have become more permissive over time
- sexual attitudes are evidently shaped by a variety of historical, religious, political, and other societal influences
- sexual attitudes differ from country to country and from group to group
100
sex for the first time
- average age of first intercourse is 17 for both men and women
- majority of teens have sex for the first time with someone who is a partner in a steady, emotionally important relationship and they come to have intercourse following a gradual trajectory of increasingly intimate behavior in which kissing leads to touching then intercourse
- teen birth rate at an all-time low
- both men and women usually expect their first experience with intercourse to be more wonderful than it turns out to be
101
four themes that underlie the list of reasons for having sex
- emotional --> communication of love and commitment
- physical --> both physical pleasure gained from sex and physical attractiveness of a potential partner
- pragmatic --> wish to attain some goal or accomplish some objective that could range from making a baby to making someone jealous
- insecurity --> desire to boost one's self-esteem or to keep a partner from straying
102
age and sexual frequency
- older people generally have sex much less frequently than younger people do
- physical changes associated with aging are influential
- decreased hormone levels can reduce one's desire
- declines in physical health can erode one's vigor
103
passion and sexual frequency
passion partners feel for one another may simmer down over the long haul as each becomes familiar and routine sexual partner and the thrill of discovery and novelty is lost
104
sexual orientation and sexual frequency
- when their relationships are young, gay men have sex with their partners more than lesbians or heterosexuals
- lesbians have sex less often than other couples
- compared to heterosexual women, lesbians spend more time engaging in a wider variety of activity and enjoy more and more satisfying orgasms
105
extradyadic sex
having sex outside the dyad, or couple, with someone other than one's partner
106
infidelity
- rates of cheating are higher in couples that are dating or cohabiting
- men are more likely to cheat on their partners than women (hold more positive attitudes toward casual sex and often pursue extradyadic sex simply for the sake of sexual variety)
- gay men have a lot more extradyadic sex than both lesbians and heterosexual men
107
sociosexual orientation
the traitlike collections of beliefs and behaviors that describe our feelings about sex
108
restricted sociosexual orientation
people who were generally willing to have sex only in the context of a committed and affectionate relationship
109
unrestricted sociosexual orientation
those who do not seek much closeness or commitment before pursuing sex
110
sociosexual orientation is associated with...
the likelihood that people will have extradyadic sex
111
back burner relationships
keeping in touch with others in whom they're interested who could replace their current partner
112
good genes hypothesis
suggests that some women can profit from a dual mating strategy in which they (a) pursue long-term partners who will contribute resources to protect and feed their offspring while (b) surreptitiously seeking good genes for their children from other men
113
some modern patterns of behavior that are consistent with the good genes hypothesis
- wives with dominant, assertive, masculine husbands are more satisfied with their marriages when they're fertile than when they're not
- children have more robust immune systems when their parents each give them different sets of genes of the type that regulate immune responses
- women are more attracted to extradyadic mates when they're fertile
114
sperm competition
occurs when the sperm of two or more men occupy a woman's vagina at the same time; in response to these situations, evolution has equipped men with a penis that is ideally shaped to scoop any semen from other men away from their partner's cervix; deep thrusts force any sperm that is already present behind the head of the penis, which then pulls the sperm out of the womanq
115
cheaters tend to be...
callous, manipulative people who are high in Machiavellianism and psychopathy and low in agreeableness and conscientiousness but relatively high in anxiety about abandonment
116
consensual non-monogamy (CNM)
an arrangement in which partners agree that it is acceptable to have more than one sexual or romantic relationship at the same time
117
three different forms of CNM
- open relationship
- swingers
- polyamory
118
open relationship
partners feel free to have sex with others but they agree to avoid any romantic or emotional attachments to those other people
119
swingers
pursue extradyadic sex as a couple; connections to others are casual
120
polyamory
the partners have full-fledged love affairs that may be both sexual and romantic relationships with more than one person
121
sexual desire
- men have higher sex drives than women do
- leads to women being the "gatekeepers"
122
reasons why people forego safe sex
- underestimates of risk; illusion of unique invulnerability
- faulty decision making from sexual arousal and/or intoxication
- pluralistic ignorance
- inequalities in power
- abstinence education
- low self-control
- decreased intimacy and pleasure
123
illusion of unique invulnerability
belief that bad things are generally more likely to happen to others than to us, so we fail to take sensible precautions that would prevent foreseeable dangers
124
alcohol myopia
the reduction of people's abilities to think about and process all of the information available to them when they are intoxicated
125
pluralistic ignorance
when people wrongly believe that their feelings and beliefs are different from those of others; by misperceiving each other's true preferences, a group of people can end up following norms that everyone thinks are prevalent but that almost no one privately supports
126
power
the ability to get a partner to do what you want; when two partners possess different levels of power, they are unlikely to use condoms if the more powerful partner opposes them
127
stealthing
occurs when one surreptitiously removes a condom just before or during intercourse without his partner's knowledge or consent
128
if a couple is having sex at least once a week...
having sex more often doesn't make them any happier with their relationship
129
sexual interactions are most rewarding when...
they fulfill basic human needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness
130
self-determination theory
we are happiest and healthiest when we routinely engage in activities that allow us to choose and control our own actions (autonomy), to feel confident and capable (competence), and to establish close connections to others (relatedness)
131
motivations and sexual satisfaction
- sex is more satisfying, intimate, and fun when people engage in it for positive reasons
- when people have sex to avoid unwanted outcomes, they experience more negative emotions and their relationships suffer
132
sexual growth beliefs
thinking of sexual satisfaction as something one works for; thinking that sexual success is malleable and that one can enjoy more of it by striving to attain it
133
sexual destiny beliefs
thinking that to have great sex, one just has to find their sexual soulmate; thinking one is sexually compatible with some people and not with others
134
people enjoy more sexual satisfaction and have more satisfied partners when they're high in...
sexual growth beliefs
135
sexual communication
clear communication about sex is associated with better sexual functioning and better sexual satisfaction
136
sexual satisfaction and relationship satisfaction
we're unlikely to be satisfied with our sex lives if we're dissatisfied with our relationships with our partners
137
the best sex seems to depend on
- each person having their needs met by a partner who understands and respects one's specific sexual desires
- valuing one's partner and being devoted to the relationship
- enjoying being with each other, in bed and out of it
138
types of pressure that can be applied in sexual coercion
- mildly coercive verbal persuasion (may involve false promises, guilt induction, or threats to end the relationship)
- plying someone with alcohol or drugs to weaken their resistance
- the threat or actual use of physical force to compel someone's submission
139
broad types of sexual violation
- Quadrant I: interactions in which one person coaxes and cons another to submit to touching that they don't want
- Quadrant II: verbal manipulation and/or intentional intoxication lead to penetration of the genitals
- Quadrant III and Quadrant IV involve various degrees of physical force
140
compared to romances, friendships are...
less passionate; less exclusive; less confining, entailing fewer obligations to one's partner
141
infancy (birth up to age 2) and friendship
solitary play
142
toddlers (2-4) and friendship
parallel play
143
childhood (5 and elementary school)
- fair-weather cooperation
- intimate-mutual sharing
- autonomous interdependence
- begin having perspective-taking and start taking pleasure in others' company
144
two categories for four types of people's responses to loneliness
- active and constructive (active solitude and social contact)
- potentially self-defeating (distractions and sad passivity)
145
adaptive ways to cope with loneliness
- address pessimistic passivity
- take risks
- look for situational influences
- watch out for sour attitudes
- stay positive
- concentrate on solid friendships
146
how to overcome loneliness
- seek new friendships, not romances
- watch out for sour attitudes and stay positive
- patiently recognize that friendship takes time
147
biggest disadvantage of humans becoming bipedal
childbirth
148
solutions to bipedalism and the obstetrical dilemma
- neoteny
- a softer, (less rigid) more plastic or malleable skull during childbirth
- altricial neonates that require constant and intelligent caregiving and the ability to love
149
neoteny
the slowing or delaying of body development which allows for an easier birth, but greater dependency or attachment at birth to a caregiver
150
how birth of immature neonates increased need for love evolutionarily
birth of immature neonates --> increased parental investment and contact parental care extending through to adolescence --> emergence of more durable male-female bond --> increased dependence on learning and cultural adaptations
151
exaptation
a shift in the function of a trait during evolution
152
love may be...
a byproduct, exaptation, that keeps us together to take care of young
153
chemicals for lust
testosterone and estrogen
154
chemicals for attraction
dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
155
chemicals for attachment
oxytocin and vasopressin
156
the four year itch
Helen Fisher; people are in love for about four years before it dies
- divorces are more frequent in the fourth year of marriage (universal)
157
study of couples who have been married for a few years to 36 years and the three components of love
- passion is the quickest to appear, but fades first
- commitment grows and maintains over time
- intimacy grows and maintains over time
158
excitation transfer
when arousal caused by one event fuels stronger emotional reactions to a second, unrelated event
159
gender differences in types of love
- men tend to describe themselves more as game-players, ludus
- women score higher on storge, mania, and pragma
160
what adolescents say about sex ed
1) gender issues can be disruptive
2) teachers are visibly embarrassed
3) the lessons are too mechanical and moralistic
4) most sex ed neglects to mention desire, agency, or consent
5) sex ed is helpful for students from conservative cultures
6) a comprehensive approach is best
161
sexology
the scientific study of sexual interests, behavior, and function
162
origins of the kiss
- could be instinctual
- Romans popularized kissing and spread it across the world
163
William Masters and Virginia E. Johnson
- observed people having sex or masturbating
- developed instruments to measure sexual response
- discovered what happens physiologically to men and women during sex for the first time
164
whiptail lizard
- all are female
- still reproduce with each other
- produce eggs with double the amount of chromosomes and genes that are re-combined
- not a lot of genetic variation
165
cleaner wrasse (cleaner fish)
- hermaphrodites
- females usually live with one male
- one male protecting a group of females
- issue with there being only one male, because what would happen if the male disappears?
- when researchers removed the male, the dominant female (largest female) changes sex and becomes male
166
vultures and swans
- mate for life
- to aid in raising young
167
pygmy marmosets
- father takes care of the young
- mother comes around to feed the young
- dominant female --> only one allowed to reproduce
- other females cannot reproduce
- multiple males mate with the one, dominant female
- everyone helps take care of the young, even older siblings
- females do not exhibit a visible sign of ovulation
168
bonobo
- use sexuality as a way to maintain social order
- mate for reasons other than reproduction
- like humans, have sex outside of estros (outside of the fertility window)
- use sex as conflict resolution
- do not have sex with kin
169
humans
- dimorphic
- serial monogamy
- women value more emotional investment to spark sexual desire
- men have stronger sex drives
