Midterm 2: Lectures 10-16 Flashcards
What is the “Invisible Gorilla Experiment”? What does this experiment tell us about memory and retrieval?
The experiment is a YouTube video where viewers are asked to count the amount of times a team passes a ball. When the viewers focus on the amount of times the ball is passed, they miss the fact that a gorilla passes by, and that the certain in the background changes colour. This is on example of selective attention, when people focus on a specific aspect of an event, they miss other important details. This can be applied to eyewitness testimony, eyewitnesses might focus on one detail of the crime and miss many others.
Distinguish between a system variable and an estimator variable in relation to eyewitness research. Provide two examples of each.
An estimator variables are variables/factors that increase or decrease eyewitness accuracy that are present at the time of the crime and can’t be changed or controlled by the criminal justice system. Their effect is estimated after crime takes place. For examples the age of the witness or lighting conditions at scene of crime.
System variables are variables/factors that increase or decrease eyewitness accuracy that are under the control of criminal justice system. For example the presence of leading questions and how the lineup is conducted.
What is the weapon focus effect? Describe two explanations for this effect
It is a phenomenon where the witness is focused on the presence of a weapon rather than other aspects of a situation, impairing their ability to recall other information about the event or perpetrator.
One explanation is the threat arousal hypothesis, this explains that when our emotional arousal increases in presence of danger (a weapon) our attentional capacity decreases, and is more likely to encode the danger and not peripheral details like the appearance of the perpetrator.
Another explanation is the unusualness hypothesis, which states that in circumstances where a weapon is unusual to the setting, its presence attracts witnesses attention and witnesses focus on weapon and not peripheral details.
What is cross-race bias in eyewitness research? Describe two explanations for this effect.
“Own-Race Bias”: Witnesses are more accurately able to recognize faces of their own race than faces of other races (Meissner & Brigham, 2001).
One explanation to this is the Perceptual-Expertise model that says that when we observe someone of our own race, we tend to classify their facial features in greater detail; yet, may encode the features of those from other races more superficially, paying less attention to specific facial characteristics (face shape, size of features, skin tone, and hair texture).
Another explanation is Social-Cognitive model which says that Features of in-group members (i.e., people like “me”) appear to be processed as a unified whole, whereas the facial features of out-group faces (i.e., people different from me) are processed separately.
What is the “misinformation effect” in the context of eyewitness research conducted by Elizabeth Loftus? Describe two explanations for this effect.
The misinformation effect, also called the post-event information effect, is a phenomenon in which a witness who is presented with inaccurate information after an event, will incorporate that misinformation into a subsequent recall task.
-One explanation is Misinformation Acceptance Hypothesis: Incorrect information provided because witness guesses what officer or experimenter wants to the response to be
-Another explanation is Source Misattribution Hypothesis: Witness has 2 memories, the original and the misinformation; however, witness cannot remember the source of where each memory originated
-Final explanation is memory impairment hypothesis. When original memory is replaced/altered with new incorrect information and original memory is no longer accessible.
Distinguish between sequential and simultaneous lineups and the types of judgements related to each procedure. Describe a lineup procedure that improves the accuracy of child witnesses.
-Sequentially is when lineup members are presented serially to witness, witness must decide whether the member is the perpetrator before seeing another member, this is absolute judgement where each lineup member is separately compared to the witnesses memory of the perpetrator.
-Simultaneous is when all lineup members at one time to the witness. This is relative judgement, where witnesses compare lineup members to one another and choose the one that looks most like the perpetrator.
-Elimination lineup (Pozzulo & Lindsay, 1999) has 2 steps that significantly reduces false positives in child witnesses looking at lineups. Step 1 involves all lineup photos are presented and child picks who looks most like culprit and remaining photos are removed, this is relative judgement. Then in step 2 the child compares their memory of culprit with photo from step 1 to decide if its really the culprit, this is using their absolute judgements
Explain whether confident witnesses are more accurate. What system variable effects witness confidence?
A small positive correlation exists between a witness’s confidence and their identification accuracy. Correlation increases when identification is made quickly, assessed at time of initial identification. The more often a witness expresses a decision, the greater confidence in later reports. Confidence can be manipulated with post-identification feed back. Further, jurors rely on witness confidence.
Provide 4 recommended guidelines for proper lineups discussed in class stemming from research or the Sophonow Inquiry.
Lineup procedure should be video or audio recorded. Officers should: inform witnesses that it is just as important to clear innocent suspects. Officers should not discuss a witness’ identification with them. Double blind administration makes it so person conducting lineup does not know suspect and cannot influence witness. Suspect should not stand out in line.
Explain what went wrong in the investigation of the Martensville Satanic Cult case (R v Sterling). How can interviewing techniques for children, like the Stepwise Interview, deal with concerns raised in the case?
A child (2.5yrs old) who attended the daycare run by the Sterlings came home ore day with a rash, said a stranger poked her at daycare. Doctor said rash not consistent with abuse but the parent was concerned. Police began interviewing the kids at the daycare, at first there was nothing of concern but the more they interviewed them the more fantastical their testimonies got claiming the Sterlings were performing demonic/cult-like things to the children. These testimonies were not accurate and Sterlings were not convicted but their reputations were tarnished. What went wrong was that the children were not interviewed properly. The stepwise interview would have helped because it is a protocol designed to keep false claims at a minimum and the procedure is consistent with what ver know about how to interview children to digit accurate information. Explains what truth is to child and has them promise to tell truth. General and specific questions
Explain two explanations regarding why children are more suggestible than adults.
- Social compliance/pressure: Children trust and want to cooperate with adult interviewer. Meaning they will answer a question even if they don’t understand or have an answer. This could lead to false information.
- Developmental differences in cognitive system: children differ in the ways they encode, store, retrieve and forget information. Children can misattribute where information comes from (ex. Think something in a TV show happened to them irl)
What is CBCA? Identify 3 criteria that are used in this form of analysis. Identify two problems with the technique.
It is criterion-based content analysis. It is a part of statement validity analysis, attempts to distinguish between true and fabricated statements made by children. Uses general characteristics of the statement (ex. Logical structure), specific contents of statement (ex. Descriptions of interactions), peculiarties of content (ex. Unusual details) and motivation-related contents (ex. Admitting lack of memory/knowledge). Problems with this are that age is positively correlated with CBCA scores, and accuracy shouldn’t be related to age. Also, if the event they are trying to measure is a repeated one, for example multiple instances of abuse, CBCA scores go down. Event familiarity is complicated when reoccurring and recall is more difficult.
Distinguish between repressed memories that are recovered and False Memory Syndrome. Identify 3 criteria for determining the truthfulness of recovered memory developed by Lindsay and Read (1995).
Repressed memories are traumatic memory that is unconsciously blocked, person can’t remember it. It is a Freudian defense mechanism, and therapy is needed to recall them from unconscious. On the other hand false memory syndrome is when a person falsely remembers abuse as a child, as their memory is malleable by others. They have no memories of this abuse until they enter suggestive therapy for another psychological problem and come to believe abuse was there when not. Ways to determine if a recovered memory is true according to Lindsay and Read are the techniques used to recover memory, if hypnosis/guided imagery used, it’s probably incorrect. Age of compliment important, it the alleged abuse was prior to age 2, probably a false memory because there is no language to encode at age 2. Also the time elapsed since alleged abuse, more difficult and more unlikely to recover it it’s been more than 25 years.
What is risk assessment and where it is used? Describe 2 core components in risk assessment.
Risk assessment is the process of gathering information about people in a way that is consistent with and guided by scientific and professional knowledge to predict now risky an individual is and then to manage that risk to prevent violence. It is used in criminal settings at major decision points.
The first core component is risk prediction. This is accurately evaluating the level of risk a person poses with respect to probability of future violence, as well as the reasons why that person poses a risk.
The other core component is risk management. This involves implementing strategies and services to manage or reduce the persons identified risks to lower the likelihood of future violence. Information from risk assessment is used to inform which interventions should be used in each case.
Differentiate between static and dynamic risk factors. Provide two examples of each.
Static risk factors are permanent features of to offenders history that predict reoffending, do not fluctuate over time and are not amenable to deliberate intervention. Examples are age at first arrest and past violence.
Dynamic risk factors predict reoffending but fluctuate over time and are potentially changeable. Examples are current substance abuse and lack of employment.
What is the difference between unstructured clinical and actuarial approaches to risk assessment?
-Unstructured clinical judgement: clinical professionals use professionals discretion to gauge the likelihood that the individual will be violence in the future. There is no structure and it is subjective. It is done informally, in the head of the human clinical charge who gives an impressionistic conclusion. This is advantageous because it is flexible and widely applicable. The con of this approach is that it is highly subjective and at different conclusions. It also lacks accuracy and consistency is only 50% correct at determining risk.
-The actuarial approach is what Ontario researchers use. It is highly structured with predefined rules and it is algorithmic. Involves set of coding rules to combine risk factors to render decision about risk derived from a construction sample and using a checklist of valid risk factors based on scientific statistical prediction. There is no human discretion involved. It is good because there is a demonstrated link between risk factors and outcomes and it provides reproducible results that is reliable across raters. The negative are that position estimates may not generalize to all populations and it is focussed on static risk factors and ignores dynamic factors.
Describe the Structured Clinical Judgement approach to violence risk assessment. Provide an example of an SPJ tool. Identify 1 benefit and 1 drawback related to this approach
The structure, professional judgement is a structured application of clinical expertise, allowing professional flexibility, and discretion. Intended to guide individualized risk planning in case management and not group people into risk levels unlike actuarial. Structure imposed on types of info to be gathered, standard set of risk factors to be considered, and instructions for rating risk and scoring judgements. An example of an SPJ tool is the HCR-20 which uses historical, clinical and risk management factors in consideration. Provides a final risk opinion of low, moderate or high. Benefits of this approach are that it predicts violence as well as or better than actual approaches, is consistent and allows for unique risk factors. A drawback is that it requires time because it is a comprehensive assessment and not a screening and can take days.
System variables that may affect eyewitness identification
Misinformation effect, faulty line-up construction and administration, memory conformity, witness confidence, unconscious transference
Key issues in standard police interviews of witnesses that limit witness accuracy
-Interrupting eyewitness during free recall
-Asking predetermined/random questions that are inconsistent with information the witness is currently recalling
-Using leading or suggestive questions
-Asking very short, specific questions
EXPLAINING THE MISINFORMATION EFFECT: Misinformation Acceptance Hypothesis
Incorrect information provided because witness guesses what officer/ experimenter wants the reponse to be
EXPLAINING THE MISINFORMATION
EFFECT: Source Misattribution Hypothesis
Witness has 2 memories, the original and the misinformation; however, witness cannot remember the source of where each memory originated
EXPLAINING THE MISINFORMATION
EFFECT: memory impairment hypothesis
Original memory is replaced/ altered with new incorrect information. Original memory no longer accessible
Memory conformity
Problem occurs when there are multiple witnesses to a crime scene, and the narrative reported by one witness contaminated the memory and report of a second witness. Witnesses should be interviewed separately, and not confirm details of the crime with one another before giving a statement to police
Lineups, key definitions: suspect vs perpetrator
Suspect: person the police believe committed the crime, who may be guilty or innocent of the crime
Perpetrator: the actual guilty person who committed the crime
Constructing a lineup: foils/distractors, strategies and fair lineup
Foils/distractors: lineup members who are known to be innocent of the crime
Similarity to suspect strategy: lineup constructed by matching lineup members to the suspects appearance
Match to description strategy: distractors matched only on features the witness provided on their description
Fair lineup: suspect does not stand out from others
What is Lineup bias + 3 types of lineup bias
Lineup that suggests whom police suspect and thereby who the witness should identify.
Types of biases:
Foil bias-Suspect is only lineup member who matches the description of the culprit.
Clothing bias-Suspect is only lineup member wearing similar clothing to that worn by culprit.
Instruction bias-Police fail to mention that the culprit may not be present. Instead, police imply that a) culprit is present and b) the witness should ID them
Estimating identification on accuracy: target-present vs target-absent lineup
Target present lineup contains the actual perpetrator, simulate where police have arrested the guilty perpetrator. Target absent lineup does not contain the perpetrator, but an innocent suspect and simulates where police have arrested and innocent suspect.
Two types of lineup judgements: relative vs absolute
Relative judgement is comparing lineup members to one another, and choosing the one that looks most like the perpetrator. Absolute judgement is each lineup member is separately compared to the witnesses memory of a perpetrator.
Lineup presentation procedures
-all lineup members are presented at one time to a witness, uses relative judgement
-lineup members are presented serially to witness, witness must decide whether the number is the perpetrator before seeing another member, uses absolute judgement
-show one person (the suspect) to the witness
-witness is taken to a public location where the suspect is likely to be
Unconscious transference
When witness has unwittingly mixed up, another person observed near the scene of the crime, ordering the identification process with actual perpetrator
Four identification guidelines by Wells et al
1) double blind administration person conducting lineup should not know which is the suspect
2) Eyewitnesses should be told explicitly that the criminal might not be present in lineup
3) suspect should not stand out in the lineup
4) a clear statement of the witnesses confidence should be taken prior to providing feedback.
+should be recorded
