Final Exam (Lectures 17-23) Flashcards
What is “psychopathy”? (3 points) Identify one example each of an Interpersonal, Affective and Behavioral indicator of this disorder (3 points)
Psychopaths are intra-species predators who lack conscience and empathy. Psychopathy is a personality disorder characterized by manipulation, lack of emotional attachment and impulsivity. It is defined by a distinct collection of Interpersonal (ex: deceitfulness), Affective (lack of empathy and remorse) and Behavioral (impulsivity and unreliability) characteristics. Psychopaths look for vulnerable victims to prey on to satisfy their own selfish needs. Make up 1% of the population.
What is the most common method of assessing psychopathy? (2 points) Distinguish between Factor 1 and Factor 2 traits and provide one example of each. (4 points).
Most common method to assess psychopathy is the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; Hare, 1991, 2003) by Robert Hare. This is used internationally, measures the extent to which an individual matches a prototypical psychopath. The cut off is a score of 30/40. Factor 1 is Interpersonal/Affective traits, for example glibness and lack of remorse. Factor 2 is Behavioural Symptoms for example impulsivity and poor behavioural controls.
Distinguish between Primary, Secondary and Dyssocial Psychopathy Subtypes (2 points each).
Primary psychopaths are true psychopaths (ex. Ted Bundy) who have biological deficits and measurable brain differences in fearlessness, impulsivity. They are grandiose manipulators who lack empathy and see their victims as objects. What distinguishes this psychopath from other types is their fearlessness which is inborn and they lack remorse.
Secondary psychopaths are emotionally disturbed offenders who commit antisocial behaviour due to severe emotional problems or inner conflicts. They are different from primary psychopaths as they do feel fear and can experience guilt and remorse, and are more likely to be stress-reactive (ex. Elizabeth Wettlaufer).
Dyssocial psychopaths learn psychopathic behaviour from a subculture, for example a gang. They differentiate from other types as they possess a capacity for empathy and positive emotions but this has been deactivated in response to harsh environmental conditions.
Explain 3 (of 4) distinct ways in which psychopathy is linked to crime/violence (2 points each)
- FREQUENCY OF OFFENDING: Psychopaths are prolific, high density offenders who commit almost 2x many violent crimes compared to non-psychopaths and start crime at a younger age
- VERSATILITY OF OFFENDING: As a result of poor behavioural controls psychopaths are opportunistic offenders. Jack of all trades, diverse, variety of offences and don’t specialize, victimize strangers
- MOTIVATION FOR VIOLENCE: Psychopaths are more likely to commit violent crimes relative to non-psychopaths. Psychopaths differ in their motivation, arousal level, victim type, and degree of planning relative to non-psychopaths.
- STABILITY OF CRIMINALITY IN LIFESPAN: Psychopaths persist longer in criminality with higher rates of general and violent reoffending. Fail more quickly and frequently on conditional release. Barely gets better with age:
* Factor 1 Traits never change, Factor 2 Traits and non-violent crimes are reduced in half of criminal psychopaths by age 35 - 40 years
Violent crime stable across lifespan.
Identify 3 key differences in the expression of psychopathy among females (as compared to males). (3 points) What is the problem with using the PCL-R to measure psychopathy among women? (3 points).
Psychopathy may be expressed differently in females due to gender differences in socialization.
While interpersonal and affective symptoms of psychopathy are manifested similarly in both genders, there are marked differences in behavioural symptoms:
1. Men are more likely to use physical aggression
2. Women more likely to use relational aggression
3. Women tend to begin offending later in life and reoffend less compared to men
The problem with using the PCL-R to measure psychopathy among women is that factor 2 traits do not capture relational aggression which is what women use. The PCL-R was developed on a male population and so few women score above 30. Behavioural traits on checklist may not capture female psychopathy adequetly. Factor 1 traits are similear between genders but factor 2 traits differ.
Distinguish between Lykken’s, Newman’s, and Hare’s theoretical explanations of the link between psychopathy and crime (2 points each).
- Lykken’s Fearlessness Model (1957, 1995)
- Argues psychopaths have deficits in experiencing of fear/anxiety as a result of abnormally low ANS functioning.
- Fearlessness results in an inability to learn from the consequences of punishment.
- Inability to experience fear/anxiety increases risk of crime because not afraid of consequences - HARE’S HYPO-EMOTIONALITY MODEL (1993, 1996)
- Argues that psychopaths have emotional deficits and are unable to experience full range of human emotion.
- Psychopaths’ broad emotional deficits increase their odds of engaging in criminal behaviour because they experience no feeling or concern for other people.
- Do not experience any distress over causing harm or suffering because they lack empathy for their victims - NEWMAN’S RESPONSE MODULATION THEORY (1987)
- Argues psychopathy is a reward motivation/attention deficit disorder
- When psychopaths engage in a specific rewarded behaviour, they do not pay attention to other contextual/peripheral cues (e.g., the presence of law enforcement, potential loss of job) that would normally deter others from engaging in antisocial behaviour.
What is “social stigma” as it relates to mental illness? (2 points) What are three negative impacts of stigma directed towards mental illness? (4 points)
Social Stigma: Severe disapproval and discrediting of a person based on characteristics that make them different from other people in society. This exists with mental illness as the public commonly perceived patients with mental illness as
unpredictable and violent. Three negative impacts of stigma towards mental health are:
1) Barriers in seeking and accessing care, services, housing, and employment.
2) Social isolation and a reduced social support network which can exacerbate mental illness symptoms.
3) Reduced quality of life, depression, loss of hope for recovery, suicide.
Explain the difference between “civil commitment” (3 points) as compared to admission into the “forensic system” (3 points)
Civil Commitment (involuntary commitment) is a legal process that allows a person to be detained against their will if they are deemed to have a severe mental disorder and pose a threat to themselves or others. In civil commitment, the person has not committed a crime.
The forensic system assesses, detains, and rehabilitates those with a mental disorder who have been criminally charged where the person is unfit to stand trial and/or NCRMD.
Are people with mental illness at greater risk of committing violence compared to others? (1.5 points) Identify 3 risk factors for perpetrating violence among people with serious mental illness. (1.5 points each)
People with mental illness are not at a greater risk of committing violence compared to others. The risk factors for perpetrating violence among people with serious mental illness are the same as those without mental illness. Risk factors include substance use, psychopathy and unemployment.
Identify and briefly describe the British case on which Canada’s insanity standard is based (3 points). What are the criteria required to be found not criminally responsible due to mental disorder (NCRMD) (3 points)?
Canada’s insanity standard is based on the M’Naughton case is 1843. The standard was created in reaction to the acquittal in 1843 of Daniel M’Naghten on the charge of murdering Edward Drummond. M’Naghten had shot Drummond after mistakenly identifying him as the British Prime Minister Robert Peel, who was the intended target. S.16 of the Criminal Code outlines that “no person is criminally responsible for an act committed or an omission made while suffering from a mental disorder that rendered the person incapable of appreciating the nature and quality of the act or omission or of knowing that it was wrong”.
What does it mean to be “Unfit to stand trial?” (2 points). Outline the fitness standard in Canada (3 points). What can be done to make a person “fit”? (1 point).
Unfit to stand trial refers to an inability to conduct a defence at any stage of the proceedings on account of a person’s mental disorder (example: they have schizophrenia). The fitness standard has three points, the individual must: understand the nature/object of the proceedings, understand nature of possible consequences, and be able to communicate with their lawyer and understand who their lawyer is. The most common form of treatment is medication and if defendant becomes fit they return to court and proceedings continue.
What is the difference between insane and non-insane automatism? (4 points). Provide a clear example of each (2 points).
Non-insane automatism is involuntary behaviour that occurs because of an external factor, for example a blow to the head that results in a loss of consciousness. Cases are deemed not guilty due to lack of mens rea.
Insane automatism is involuntary action that occurs because of mental illness, for example schizophrenia and delusions. The verdict in such cases is NCRMD.
Dr. Lavoie conducted a study about police training and virtual reality. What was the purpose of her study (3 points) and what were her main findings? (3 points)
The purpose of her study was to address the research question: What is the efficacy of the mental health crisis response (MHCR) training program offered on a Virtual Reality vs. Live Action platform in improving de-escalation competencies among police officers? The study compared the efficacy of MHCRT offered in VR and Live Action formats in relation to a control group on the subjects DePICT de-escalation scores, following a 10 minute crisis simulation. The research results found that live action and VR are both modealities that work to train officers.The live action group had greater marginal means but the VR version showed more rapid/steep improvement. MHCRT also found to increase confidence in mental health response tasks, increased empathy and reduced bias towards people with mental illness.
Provide a definition of stalking (3 points) and identify and describe the criminal code legislation that criminalizes stalking (3
points).
Stalking is an intentional pattern of intrusive and intimidating behaviours toward a specific person that causes the target to feel scared or uncomfortable, or that a reasonable person would regard as being so. It can be found in the criminal code as Criminal Harassment, s. 264. The criminal code outlines four interrelated behaviours:
1. Repeatedly follow another person from place to place
2. Repeatedly communicate with, directly or indirectly, the other person
3. Beset or watch a place where the other person is living or working
4. Engage in threatening conduct directed at the other person or family members
These behaviours must cause the person to fear for their safety.
Who are the typical victims of stalking (3 points) and who are typical perpetrators (3 points).
8/10 victims of stalking are women, generally younger aged women between 15-34. University students (9-30% of females and 11-17% males in uni victimized). 88% of stalkers know their victims. Vulnerable groups are people with disabilities, history of childhood victimization, experiencing homelessness, LGBTQ, indigenous. Vulnerable professions are politicians, psychiatrists, doctors, uni profs. As for typical perpetrators, 9/10 are men. Often stalk people from a previous or current relationship.
Explain whether most stalkers are violent (2 points) and identify 3 risk factors for violence.
Most stalkers are not interpersonally violent. Violence occurs in 38% of cases and is an extreme severity modus operandi. Most stalkers engage in love bombing or less severe modus operandi. Violence in the form of uttering threats is increasing. Risk factors for violence include clinical variables like substance use disorder or personality disorder or case-related variables like a former intimate relationship with the victim.
Explain what an erotomanical delusion is (4 points) and give an example (2).
Erotomanical delusion is stalking characterized by the absence of a prior relationship with victim, but where the stalker falsely believes a relationship does exist due to mental illness. It is extremly rare, and delusions often concern idealized romantic love. Object of affection is usually of higher status and a complete stranger. Example is the case of David Letterman, who had a female stalker that believed she was in a relationship with him and would break into his house, steal his car and more.
Distinguish between Mohanie et al.’s (2006) four “RECON” stalker typologies (1.5 points each)
- Intimate stalker: stalker who has been in an intimate relationship with the victim and the most common type of stalker making up 50% of stalkers. Seeks power and control over victim.
- Love obsessional stalker: knows their victim, but has not been involved in an intimate relationship. They may know their victim from work, friends, patient/doctor relationship, etc. They want to have a romantic relationship with the victim. This type is rare, 13% of stalkers.
- Public figure (celebrity) stalker: Stalks public personalities with whom they have no prior relationship, this is distinguishing from previous 2 types. 27% of stalkers. Intense emotional feelings for their victim.
- Private stranger stalker: Stalks someone who is not a public figure, and with whom they have no prior relationship and wants to have a relationship with the victim. Rare, 10% of cases.
EARLY DESCRIPTION of psychopaths by Hervey Cleckley 1976
“The mask of sanity. Positive features like lack of anxiety, good intelligence and social charm. Emotional-interpersonal features like lack of remorse and insincerity. Behavioural problems like poor motivation and persistent antisocial behaviour.
FERDINAND WALDO DEMARA - “THE GREAT IMPOSTER”
Adopted fake identities, forged documents, worked in dozens of occupations without education. Had more factor 2 unstable /Anti-social lifestyle traits.
SELF-REPORT MEASURES of psychopathy
Advantages: Measure attributes/emotions not easily observable by others, Easy to administer, quick to score, relatively inexpensive, No concern re: inter-rater reliability
Limitations: Lying/manipulating to look good, Lack of insight to accurately assess own traits, Difficulty reporting emotions they neverexperienced (confuse remorse with discomfort)
Examples: Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised (PPI-R: Lilienfild & Widows, 2005) and Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (SRP; Paulhus, Naumann, & Hare, 2016)
ANTI-SOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER (ASPD) and its prevalence
A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood and continues into adulthood. Indicated by three (or more) of the following: failure to conform, deceitfulness, impulsivity. 3-5% of adult general population, 60-80% inmates meet criteria for ASPD.
ASPD OR PSYCHOPATHY?
Constructs are highly positively correlated. Nearly all psychopathic offenders are APD BUT, Not all APD offenders are psychopaths
SUBCRIMINAL PSYCHOPATHS
An individual who displays symptoms of psychopathy but whose behaviour has not brought them into formal contact with the criminal justice system. Many in the community have higher psychopathic traits without the criminal aspect.
Psychopathy and criminal behaviour
Potent predictor for future criminal behaviour, especially violence. Characteristics that ordinarily inhibit aggression such as empathy, close emotional bonds and internal inhibitions are generally absent in psychopaths which open the door to crime.
Violence used by psychopaths
-Violent non psychopaths tend to commit reactive forms of violence against females they know, usually during high emotional arousal and conflict.
-Psychopaths tend to engage in both reactive and instrumental violence. Majority of violence is reactive due to poor behavioral
controls. Also engage in more “instrumental” and pre-meditated predatory violence, typically target male strangers, exhibit cold and callous affect, motivated primarily by material gain. Lose control very easily.
Research on female psychopaths and prevalence
- Research on female psychopaths is understudied.
- Much lower prevalence of psychopathy among female offenders (11 to 16%) compared to male offenders (15 to 30%; Lyon & Welsh, 2017).
- Psychopathy appears to be more pronounced among males compared to females, although this may have to do with how we assess psychopathy.
CASE EXAMPLE: AILEEN WUORNOS
- Wuornos was a serial killer who lured seven
middle-aged white men to their deaths in the
State of Florida between 1989 and 1990. - Robbed and shot all of her victims, stole their cars, pawned their possessions, leading to her capture
- Wuornos claimed that she killed each man in self-defence during her encounters with them as a sex trade worker.
- Following her conviction, she was sentenced
to death and was executed by lethal injection - Her PCL-R score was 32 out of 40.
PSYCHOPATHY IN YOUTH
- Psychopathic traits materialize in childhood
- Assessment instruments have been developed for youth (Hare PCL:YV) ages 12-18
- Adolescents with more psychopathic traits become more involved in criminal behaviours, police contact and conduct problems
- Youth may be more responsive to treatment compared to adults
CONCERNS ABOUT LABELLING YOUTH as psychopathic
1) Potential problems with labelling youth as a “psychopath”, self fulling prophecy
2) Potential change in psychopathy
3) Adolescents are not nice argument, not psychopaths and will grow out of it
DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOPATHY (nature vs nurture)
Nature
* Research reveals a strong genetic component
* Identical twins have closer scores than fraternal twins
* Evidence that psychopathy is inherited
Nurture
* Criminal parents
* Disrupted family
* History of neglect or abuse
* Poor parental supervision
* Harsh/erratic paternal discipline
* Low paternal involvement (for boys)
Epigenetics: certain psychopathic genes activated due to experience of abusive family environment
Why are psychopaths seen as untreatable
-Given learning deficits and low anxiety, they are not motivated to change their behaviour.
-Emotionally detached and do not have a good therapeutic alliance with clinicians
-Their interpersonal features of being manipulative are obstacles to key treatment approaches requiring self exploration/cognitive confrontation.
-Manipulative, superficial features lead them to use therapeutic relationships to their advantage
ARE PSYCHOPATHS TREATABLE?
Research on the treatability of psychopaths has found that psychopaths are very difficult to treat. Penatanguishine Study used Defence Disrupting Therapy. Treated psychopaths did NOT get better, instead showed violent reoffending at higher levels!
General conclusion: Treatment fails for psychopaths AND the wrong treatment approach can make psychopaths worse
BUT: Unconventional treatment has been usually used.
What is mental illness?
A broad range of disorders that affect a person’s mood, thinking, and behavior. Causes distress, impairs ability to function normally, symptoms vary from mild to severe,. Is situational, intermittent or persistent.
Mental illness in Canada
-Mental illness affects 9M Canadians in their lifetime
- Young ppl aged are more likely to experience mental illness or substance use disorders than any other age group
- Half of people will have had a mental illness by age 40.
- Over 1.6 million Canadians report unmet mental health care needs each year
DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS
- American Psychiatric Association, first published in 1952
- In North America, the DSM is the most widely accepted and used diagnostic tool for mental health scholars and professionals
- Used across a variety of fields including psychology, social work, medicine, and others that deal with mental disorders
What does DSM entail
- The DSM provides information about each mental disorder including features and criteria used to diagnose it
- Offers differential diagnoses, which provides mental and physical disorders that also present similar symptoms
- Disorders are grouped together according to the type of disorder
Self-Stigma
Internalizing negative stereotypes and believing that one is less valued because of their mental disorder
MENTAL ILLNESS & VIOLENCE: THE EVIDENCE
Most violence is committed by those without serious mental illness. People with mental illness are more likely to be victimized. NCRMD recidivism rate 30% lower than federal recidivism rate.
________ of mental health-related calls to police-involved violence directed toward others (Shore & Lavoie, 2019), usually violence directed towards themselves
11%
PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS & VIOLENCE (psychosis, schizophrenia and delusional disorder)
Psychosis-loss of touch with reality
Schizophrenia-Profound disruption in cognition, affecting language, thought, perception, affect, and sense of self
Delusional Disorder-Non-bizarre, bizarre delusions, usually persecutory beliefs, suspeciousness
TYPES OF DELUSIONS RELATED TO VIOLENCE
Persecutory/Threat: False belief of being followed, harassed, cheated, poisoned drugged, conspired against, spied on attacked, obstructed
Control Override: A false belief that another person, or external force controls one’s thoughts, feelings, impulses, or behavior
Risk factors for people with serious mental illness committing violence
Substance Use (SUD)
Past history of violence, criminality
Psychopathy
Cluster B Personality Disorder
Anti-social, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic
Stressful, impoverished, unpredictable living conditions
Poor social support
Unemployment
Mental Health Act
Sets out power and obligations of psychiatric facilities in Ontario. It governs the admission process, the different categories of patient admission, as well as directives around assessment, care and treatment
POLICE APPREHENSION UNDER THE MHA
Police are called to conduct a check on someone’s wellbeing or provide services to those in mental health crisis.
In Ontario, s. 17 of the MHA authorizes police to apprehend a person they reasonably believe has a mental disorder and poses a serious threat to themselves or others
Once apprehended, they must be transported to hospital for assessment
If a physician determines that the person meets the threshold for involuntary admission, they can be held in a psychiatric facility against their will on a 72-hour hold for assessment and observation (Form 1)
After assessment, a patient may:
1. Be released
2. Initiate a “voluntary admission” to a mental health facility
3. Have their “involuntary admission” extended (civil commitment) for 14 day increments (Form 3)
R. v. Winko case
SCS decided that a person found NCRMD should ONLY be detained if they pose a genuine threat to the public, or else,
they should be released to the community on an absolute discharge. Ontario review board is responsible for decisions about treatment.
How do we assess fitness to stand trial?
-Crown or defence may raise the issue of a defendant’s fitness at any point from the time of arrest to the defendant’s sentencing.
-Only medical practitioners are allowed to conduct court-ordered assessments of fitness to stand trial and criminal responsibility.
-Many instruments have been developed to help practitioners determine whether a defendant is competent to stand trial
-E.g., FIT-R is a semi-structured interview and assesses the three psychological abilities in the fitness standard
RESTORING FITNESS
When found unfit, the trial is halted until competency is restored
Most common form of treatment is medication
Can be subject to a Treatment Order for involuntary treatment to restore their fitness
If defendant becomes fit, they return to court and proceedings continue
If the defendant remains unfit, the ORB must decide their fate
1. Remain in custody at the hospital
2. Conditional discharge
3. Absolute discharge
Criminalization of mental disorders
-People with mental disorders are overrepresented in the criminal justice system. 3x the arrest rate of the general population.
-Law enforcement agencies have become the social and mental health services of first resort, 70 to 80% of the calls police now receive are not related to crime.
-Disproportionate rates of mental illness in correctional facilities
-1/3 federal offenders are identified at admission as requiring psychiatric or psychological services
EXPLANATIONS FOR CJS INVOLVEMENT in ppl with mental illness: Societal factors
- Societal factors: Inequality; poverty, unemployment, inadequate housing, and marginalization
EXPLANATIONS FOR CJS INVOLVEMENT in ppl with mental illness: Criminal-legal factors
- Criminal-legal factors: ppl with mental illness are less adept at committing crime (ex staying at scene of crime) and so more likely to get caught, more likely to plead guilty, likely to be arrested for nuisance offences and are more likely to be remanded into custody.
EXPLANATIONS FOR CJS INVOLVEMENT for people with mental illness: Treatment factors
- Treatment factors: Lack of access to appropriate treatment and community supports. Reductions in hospital bed capacity in Ontario has resulted in problems accessing services for people in need of emergency or longer-term care. 1/3 psychiatric hospital beds have disappeared
MENTAL HEALTH COURTS
Specialized criminal courts that deal exclusively with mentally disordered ppl accused of crimes related to their mental illness. Staffed by specialized attorneys and judges with expertise in mental health.
-Court is non-adversarial; the rules of procedure, decorum, and evidence are relaxed.
-Individuals are assessed and have a diversion plan created.
-Mental Health Court Workers connect the accused with community services and assist them in maintaining treatment compliance.
-Individuals commonly released on bail with terms to manage risk, engage in treatment, reintegrate in community. They must re-attend court frequently to monitor compliance.
-Those who stabilize and commit no further offences are diverted from further justice system involvement
_______ mental health calls to Toronto police in 2023
31,000
CO-RESPONSE UNITS (MOBILE CRISIS TEAMS)
Pairs a specially trained police officer with a mental health specialist to co-respond to
calls involving a person in a mental health crisis, or provide follow up services.
-Mental health worker provides specialized mental health knowledge and assessment directly on scene, permitting rapid referrals to appropriate services
-Police officer provides safety and stability should the encounter involve risk of violence, as well as the authority to apprehend when necessary
-Specialize in de-escalation, referral to community mental health services, and transfers to hospital.
Results in fewer ppl being apprehended/taken into custody.
Specialized Frontline Police Training
People with mental health disorders who encounter police: tend to experience higher rates of criminalization, are subject to more police use of force, sustain higher rates of injury and death
* Proposed solution: “Specialized frontline police training” in de-escalation and mental health crisis response strategies
Mental Health Crisis Response (MHCR) Lavoie, Alvarez et al., 2020
-Educate and train police officers to engage in de-escalation strategies in response to mental health crisis
-Co-designed by community stakeholders, core competencies focusing on relational policing approach
-Objectives: a) recognize mental health crisis; b) Improve de-escalation strategies and communication skills
-Scenario-based training and assessment: Realistic experiential learning opportunities
VIRTUAL REALITY AS AN INNOVATIVE POLICE
TRAINING TOOL benefits
Create infinite immersive simulations mirroring real-world conditions, familiar local settings
Controlled training environment
Practice scenarios that are complex, difficult to replicate
Increases learning outcomes such as engagement, motivation, recall, and skills transfer
VR elicits similar perceived and physiological stress responses as real-life training
VR police training aspects overview
1) Interactive Online Modules: Officers engage with the curriculum through interactive online modules to acquire a foundational knowledge base, SME videos
2) Applied Experiential Learning in VR: Series of 3 x 90-min immersive scenarios involving problem-solving with simulated characters in crisis, SME feedback, and practicing key competencies
3) Scenario-based Assessment in VR: A circuit of 3 x 10-min high-fidelity scenarios presenting diverse environments, characters and crisis situations used to evaluate learners
4) DePICT: Trainers assess learner’s demonstrated competencies using a standardized 14-item evaluation checklist
Cyberstalking
Behaviours that involve repeated threats, harassment, or other unwanted contact, by use of computer or other technology that makes the victim feel afraid, intimidated and concerned for their safety. Frequently used in conjunction with physical stalking.
PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: OBSESSIONAL FOLLOWING
Obsession -> obsidere, “to besiege”
An abnormal or long-term pattern of threat or harassment directed toward a specific individual.
The DSM-5 Definition of obsession: Ideas, thoughts, images or urges that are experienced as persistent, intrusive, unwanted and inappropriate and that cause distress.
PREVALENCE OF STALKING
According to StatsCan data, police charged 30,200 people with criminal harassment nationwide in 2023. Harassment and threatening behaviours are on the rise.
PERPETRATORS of stalking
-9/10 stalkers are men
-Mostly previously or currently in relationship with the victim.
-Length of Stalking: Tends to last less than a year (most episodes stop after 2-4 weeks )
* More intimate the prior relationship, the longer and more intrusive the stalking
STALKING MODUS OPERANDI: LESSER SEVERITY
-Hyperintimacy Behaviors: “Love-bombing”, showering victim with cards, gifts, flowers
-Mediated Contacts: Using technology, cells, emails, cyber-stalking
-Interactional Contacts: Direct interpersonal encounters (ex. registering in same class)
STALKING MODUS OPERANDI: MODERATE SEVERITY
-Surveillance Tactics: Espionage, follows victim, photos and videos, hacks internet account, GPS, Apple tags, tap into home or car security systems
-Invasion Tactics: Break into home, workspace; hack/infect computer files; steal/damage property, use Google Home to
turn on/off lights
-Harassment and Intimidation: Verbal insults, harass loved ones, ruin reputation
STALKING MODUS OPERANDI: EXTREME SEVERITY
-Coercion and Threat Behaviors: Direct threats to victim, her family, friends, pets, Threaten suicide-murder
-Physical Aggression and Violence: Destructive vandalism, arson, physical assault, murder
Psychological Toll on Staking Victims:
- Constant fear, anxiety
- Flashbacks, PTSD
- Difficulty sleeping
- Depression
- Guilt, shame
- Eating disorders
Cycle of Violence
- Acute explosion: perpetrator commits violence, victim tries to protect themself and maybe leaves
- Honeymoon: perpetrator says he’s sorry and begs for forgiveness, victim agrees
- Tension building: perpetrator is moody, victim attempts to calm
Denial perpetrates the cycle of violence.
