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PSYC 2700 > Midterm 2 _ chapter 5 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 _ chapter 5 Flashcards

1
Q

Memory

A

Family of processes involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving information about our experience of the world

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2
Q

What are the 3 types of memory

A

-Sensory
-Short term/ working
-Long term

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3
Q

Modal Model of memory

A

-By Atkinson and Shiffrin
1. Input
2. Goes to sensory Memory
3. Which is transferred to short term memory
—> curved arrow represents rehearsal
—> Down facing arrow represents output
4. Information moves to long term memory
–>Storage
<–Retrieval

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4
Q

Sensory memory

A

Retention for brief periods (a few hundred milliseconds) of the effects/ perceptual representation of sensory stimulation.

-can be retained if we attend to them

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5
Q

Sperling’s Whole report method

A

-Wondered how much information people can take in from briefly presented stimuli
-conducted an experiment where he flashed a 12 letter display for 50 milliseconds

—> he asked the participants to report as many letters as they could remember [whole report method]

—> they were able to report an average of 4.5 letters of the 12 .

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6
Q

Sperling’s Partial report method

A

-Participants reported having seen all the letters, but by the time they had reported 4, they could no longer remember the others.
-Sperling told the participants to just report the letters in a single 4 letter row of the 12 letter display.

—> The row was determined by the pitch of a sound they would hear after seeing the display

—> high pitch= first row .. low pitch= last row

—> when focused on one row, participants correctly reported an average of 3.3 of the 4 letters (82%)

Sperling concluded that immediately after the 12 letter display, they saw an average of 82% of all the letters before decay.

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7
Q

Sperling’s Delayed partial report method

A

-Sperling did an additional experiment to determine the time course of this fading
—> the letters flashed on and off, then the cue tone was presented after a short delay

—> After a of 1 second after the flash, they reported only slightly more than 1 letter in a row

He concluded from these results that short lived sensory memory registers all or almost all of the information that hits our visual receptors, but that this info decays within less than 1 second.

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8
Q

Control processes

A

-Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin
-dynamic processes associated with the structural features that can be controlled by the person and may differ from one task to another

—> Examples
1.Rehearsal:
-repeating a stimulus over and over
-operates on short term memory

  1. Relating the digits in a phone number to a familiar date in history
  2. Strategies of attention:
    Help you focus on info that is particularly important or interesting
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9
Q

Persistence of vision

A

The continued perception of a visual stimulus even after it is no longer present

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10
Q

Iconic memory

A

-Also known as “the visual Icon”
-corresponds to brief sensory memory for visual stimuli.

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11
Q

Echoic memory

A

Persistence of a sound in the mind
Last for a few seconds after presentation of the original stimuli

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12
Q

Short term memory

A

-system involved in storing small amounts of information for a brief period of time

  • Also performs cognitive operations on them:
    —> mulling them over
    —>manipulating
    —>transforming

-Example
—>remembering a phone#, then dialling it a few moments later
—> calculating a tip at a restaurant in your head
—> keeping driving instructions in mind

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13
Q

Recall Method

A
  • Participants are presented with stimuli
  • Then after a delay
  • They are asked to report back as many of the stimuli as possible.
  1. Memory performance can be measured as a percentage of the stimuli that are remembered
  2. Responses can also be analyzedto determine whether there is a pattern to the way items are recalled
  3. Also involved when a person is asked to recollect life events, or facts they have learned.
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14
Q

Duration of short term memory

A
  • Lasts 15 to 20 seconds or less
  • Demonstrated by John brown(1958), Lloyd Peterson & Margaret Peterson(1959)
  • Used the method of recall to determine the duration of STM
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15
Q

Peterson & Peterson

A
  • Presented participants with 3 letters (such as FZL, BHM)
  • Followed by a number (such as 403)
  • Participants were instructed to begin counting backwards by threes from that number. (to keep participants from rehearsing the letters)
  • After intervals ranging from 3-18 secs
  • participants were asked to recall the 3 letters

[3 sec delay] –> Recalled 80% of the 3 letter groups
[18 sec delay]–>Recalled 12% of the 3 letter groups

The conclusion is that the effective duration of STM when rehearsal is prevented, is about 15-20 seconds or less

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16
Q

Digit Span

A
  • One measure of the capacity of STM
  • The number of digits a person can remember

[***]
-Experiment conducted in call where we had to memorize increasingly longer sets of numbers

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17
Q

Chunking

A
  • Introduced by Miller (1956)
  • Believed it to be the reason we could hold so much information in our STM despite the rather low limits of it’s capacity.
  • Described it as small units combined into larger meaningful units (Chunks)
  • Chunking in terms of meaning increases out ability to hod information in STM.

[Example ]
- words into sentences …

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18
Q

George Miller (1956)

A
  • Suggested the idea that the limit of STM is somewhere between 5-9 according to measurements of digit span
  • items can be a “chunk”: a group of items organized into a single meaningful unit.

[conclusion]
-STM can store 7 items +/- 2

[***]
-Participants aren’t prevented from using control processes [chunking]

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19
Q

Change Detection Method

A

used to determine how much information a person can retain from a briefly flashed stimulus.

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20
Q

Luck & Vogel (1997)

A
  • Measured the capacity of STM by using change detection
  • Participants are shown a display or colored squares
  • They are then shown a second display
  • Participants are asked to indicate whether the second display is the same
  • The number of squares gradually gets higher throughout the experiment.

[conclusion]
- performance began to decrease when there were more than 4 squares
- Hence, the participants were able to retain about 4 items in their short term memory

21
Q

Cowen (2001)

A

Backed Luck & Vogel
Conducted a similar experiment using verbal material

22
Q

K.Anders Ericsson (1980)

A
  • Demonstrated an effect of chunking
  • Their participant was asked to repeat strings of random digits that were read to him
  • The participant had a typical memory span of 7 digits
  • After 230 1h sessions where the participant used chunking to recode the digits into meaningful sequences

[conclusion]
- The participant was able to repeat sequences of up to 79 digits without error

23
Q

Alvarez & Cavanagh (2004)

A
  • Change detection experiment
  • The participant’s task was to indicate whether two dispayed stimuli were the same or different
  • The stimuli ranged from low information to high information
    ~>colored squares [low]
    ~>chinese characters
    ~>random shapes
    ~>shaded cubes [high][results]
    - results showed that participant judgement depended on the complexity of the stimuli
    - Memory capacity for colored squares ~> [4.4]
    - Memory capacity for the cubes ~> [1.6]
    -The greater the amount of imformation in an image, the fewer items that can be held in visual STM
24
Q

What two proposals have been made about how The capacity of STM memory should be measured?

A

Describing memory capacity in terms of
1. “number of items”
2. “amount of information”

25
Q

Why was the concept of STM as presented in the modal model thought to be too narrow to explain many research findings?

A
  • It describes STM mainly as a short-term storage mechanism
  • Dismisses STM capacity in terms manipulating information from complex tasks such as
    ~>Comprehension
    ~>Learning
    ~>Reasoning
  • Baddeley reasoned that if STM had a limited storage capacity of about the length of a phone #, filling up the storage capacity should make it difficult to do other tasks that depend on STM.
    ~> yet it is possible to carry out two tasks simultaneously
    ~>Both holding info in memory and processing info
    [ex.] Reading text and remembering numbers
26
Q

Working Memory

A
  • Introduced by Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
  • Enable complex cognitive activities that require the intergration, coordination, and manipulation of multiple bits of mentaly presented information
  • Doesn’t only store information but provides a workplace to engage in complex cognitive operations on that information

A combination of both Storage & Active processes at the same time

27
Q

Working Memory Model

A
  • Proposed by Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
  • Saw working memory as dynamic and consisting of a number of componants that can function separatly
  • The three main components being:
    ~> The phonological loop
    ~> The visuospatial sketch pad
    ~> The central executive
28
Q

The Phonological Loop

A
  • Holds verbal and auditory information
  • Consists of two components
    ~> The phonological store
    - sound-based
    - has limited capacity and holds info for few secs
    - “an internal echo-box”
    ~>The articulatory rehearsal process
    - responsible for rehearsal
    - Re-voices sounds internally, “refreshes” them
    - can keep items in the phonological store from
    decaying
29
Q

The Visuospatial Sketch Pad

A
  • Holds visual and spatial information
    [ex.]
  • forming a picture in your mind
  • finding your way around campus
30
Q

The Central Executive

A
  • Where the major work of WM occurs
  • Links the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch pad
  • Pulls information from long-term memory
  • coordinates the activity of the PL and the vsp by
    1. focusing on specific parts of a task
    2. deciding how to devide attentin between different
    tasks

The “traffic cop”: focuses attention on relevant message

31
Q

Phonological Similarity Effect

Evidence for Phonological Loop

A
  • Confusion of letters or words that sound similar
  • Occurs when words are processed in the phonological store part of the phonological loop

[R.Conrad 1964]
- Flashed a series of target letters on a screen
- Intructed participants to write down the letters in the order they were presented
- Found that when participants made errors, they were most likely to misidentify a the target letter as another letter that sounded like the target.
- [conclusion]
~> Even though the participants saw the letters
~> The mistakes they made were based on the letters’
sounds

32
Q

Word Length Effect

Evidence for Phonological Loop

A
  • Worse recall performance for items that take more time to
    ~> Articulate/ pronounce
    ~> Rehearse
    ~> produce during recall
  • The longer it takes to rehearse items, the higher risk they won’t be “refreshed” before they decay from the phonological store.

[Baddeley 1975]
- Found that ppl are able to remember the number of items that they can pronounce in about 1.5-2 secs
- The number of words you can say should be close to your digit span

Some have proposed that the effect does not occur under some conditions

33
Q

Articulatory Suppression

Evidence for Phonological Loop

A
  • Reduces memory because speacking interferes with rehearsal
  • Occurs when a person is prevented from rehearsing items to be remembered by repeating an irrelevant sound
  • Overloads the phonological loop which is responsible for holding verbal and auditory information

[**]
~ Eliminates the word length effect [shorter words usually
leave more space in the PL]
~ Eliminates the phonological similarity effect [with
written material]

[ex.] saying “the the the”

34
Q

The process of visual imagery

Evidence for The Visuospatial Sketch Pad

A
  • The creation of visual images in the mind in the absence of a physical visual stimulus
35
Q

Mental Rotation Task

Evidence for The Visuospatial Sketch Pad

A

[Shepard and Metzler 1971]
- Measured participants’ reaction time to decide whether pairs of objects presented in different angles were the same or different

[results]
- Reaction times were longer for greater differences in orientation
- When one shape was rotated 40 degrees compared to the other, it took 2 secs to decide
- When one shape was rotated 140 degrees compared to the other, it took 4 secs to decide

[conclusion]
-Shepard & Metzler inferred that the participants were using mental rotation: solving the problem by rotating an image in their minds

36
Q

The Visual Patterns Test

Evidence for The Visuospatial Sketch Pad

A

[Della salla et al. 1999]
- Participants were asked to look at a pattern of blacked out squares on a white grid for 3 secs
- Then were asked to replicate what they saw on a blank white grid.

-Patterns are difficult to code verbally, test depends on visual memory and illustrates the operation of visual imagery.

[Results]
- Participants were able to complete patterns consisting with an average of 9 shaded squares before making a mistake
- Chunking payed a role in results, individual squares can be combined into subpatterns

37
Q

Holding a Spacial Stimulus in the Mind

Evidence for The Visuospatial Sketch Pad

A
  • Demonstration involving visualizing a large F
  • Has both “outside corners” and “inside corners”
  • [Task 1] Participants where asked to point to a table with the options “in” or “out” while visualizing each corner along the F
  • [Task 2] Participants where asked to say out loud whether the corner was “in” or “out” while visualizing the F

[Results]
- Most ppl found the pointing task more difficult
- The reason being holding the image of the letter and pointing are both visuospatial tasks so it overloads it
- While saying it is handled by the phonological loop, so it doesnt interfere with visualizing the F.

38
Q

Which parts of the brain are verbal and non verbal memory associated with ?

Evidence for the central executive

A
  • [Verbal] left hemisphere
  • [Non-Verbal] right hemisphere

Patients with damage to left hemisphere had verbal working memory of two items
- improved when stimuli was presented visually
- also showed no phonological similarity effect

39
Q

Use Baddeley’s Working Memory Model to explain what is happening when a person is attempting to simultaneously drive and use a cell phone.

Evidence for the central executive

A

The central executive would be coordinating

[Phonological loop precesses]
- Talking on the phone
- understanding the conversation

[Sketch pad processes]
- Visualizing landmarks
- The layout of the streets
- Navigating the car

40
Q

Perseveration

Evidence for the central executive

A
  • Typical behavior of patients with frontal lobe damage
  • Represents a brakdown in the central executive’s ability to control attention
  • Defined by repeatedly performing the same action or thought even if it is not achieving desired goal
41
Q

Dual Tasks

Evidence for the central executive

A
  • Given an auditory-verbal, and visuospatial task to do at the same time
  • Baddeley hypothesized that deficits in those with early-onset Alzheimer’s disease are due to problems with the Central Executive
  • With perfomance in dual task condition worst in Alzheimer’s patients vs. controls
42
Q

Episodic Buffer

A

-Baddeley beleived there was a missing component accounting for the intechange of information between working memory and long-term memory
-The episodic buffer stores information and is connected to LTM making it able to integrate information across multiple sources into a single episodic representation.

assumed to hold intergrated episodes/ chunks in a multidimensional code

43
Q

Event-Related Potential Method (ERP)

A
  • Recorded with small disc electrode placed on the scalp
  • Each electrode picks uo signals from groups of neurons that fire together
  • Relating to the number of items placed into working memory, a larger ERP response indicates a larger use of capacity
44
Q

Funahashi et al. (1989)

A
  • Recorded from neurons in a monkey’s PFC while the monkey carried out a delayed-responce task
  • Funahashi found neurons that responded only when the square was flashed in a particular location
  • These neurons continued responding during the delay
    [conclusion]
  • Indicates that information about the object’s location remains available for as long as these neurons continue firing
45
Q

Stoke’s Model

A
  • Beleived that information could be held during the delay with no continuous firing
  • Proposed that information can be stored by short-term changes in neural networks he called activity-silent working memory
  • last only a few seconds

[Activity state]
- info to be remembered causes a number of neurons to breifly fire

[Synaptic state]
- A number of connections between neurons are strengthened

[Remembering]

46
Q

What are the 4 main brain areas thought to be involved in working memory.

A
  • [Frontal lobe]–> sustained attention, rehearsal, goals
  • [Temporal lobe]–> long-term memory
  • [Parietal lobe]–> sustained attention
  • [occipital lobe]–> peception
47
Q

The reading span test

A
  • Required participants to read a series of 13-16 word sentences
  • Each sentence was seen breifly as it was being read, then the next sentence was presented
  • Immediately after reading the last sentence, they were asked to remember the last word in each sentence in the order they occured.
  • The participant’s reading span was the number of sentences they could read, and then correctly remember all the last words
  • Spans ranged from 2 to 5 according to individual working memory capacity
48
Q

The vogel et al. task (2005)

A
  • Two groups separated in high vs low capacity based on their perfomance on test of working memory
  • Participants were tested using the change detection procedure
  • The ERP measured on the first task was relatively close between the low-c and high-c groups
  • When a distracted was added to the dispay, high-c out performed low-c
    [Conclusion]
    -High capacity participants are better at tuning out distractors, and have better functioning central executive

PSYC 2700 (6 decks)

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