Final _ chapter 10

Question 1

Visual Imagery

Answer 1

Seeing in the absence of a visual stimulus

Question 2

Mental Imagery

Answer 2

A broader term that refers to the ability to re-create the sensory world in the absence of physical stimuli
- used to include all of the senses

Question 3

Wundt and imagery

Answer 3

• Wundt proposed that images were on of the three basic elements of consciousness [+sensations & feelings]
• Proposed that because images accompany thoughts, studying images was a way of studying thinking.

Question 4

Imageless thought debate

Answer 4

• Some took Aristotle’s side that ‘thought is impossible without an image’
• Others that thinking can occur without images

Question 5

Francis Galton 1883

Answer 5

• Evidence supporting that imagery was not required for thinking
• Observed that people who had great difficutlty forming visual images were still quite capable of thinking

Question 6

Behaviorism and imagery

Answer 6

Beleived they weren’t worthy of study
- Arguments and counterarguments ended when behaviorism took central place in psychology
- Branded the study of imagery as unproductive since visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them.

Changed when the study of cognition was reborn

Question 7

Paired-Associate Learning

Method

Answer 7

• Participants are presented with pairs of words[study period]
• They are then presentedwith the first word of each pair[test perios]
• Their task is to recall the word was paired with it during the study period

Question 8

Conceptual Peg Hypothesis

Answer 8

Alan Paivio’s [1963]
- Use paired-associate learning
- Showed that it was easier to remember concrete nouns that can be imaged than it is to remember abstract nouns
- Since concrete nouns create images that other words can ‘hang onto’

Question 9

Shepard and Metzler 1971

Answer 9

Mental Rotation Experiment[From Chap 5]

• First to apply quantitative methods to the study of imagery
• Using mental chronometry (amount of time it take to carry out a mental task)
• Found that we rotate images in our mind by placing two structures side by side and asking participants if they’re the same of different.

Showed that the spatial experience for both imagery and perception matches the layout of the actual stimulus

Question 10

Stephen Kosslyn [1973]

Mental Scanning

Answer 10

• Asked participants to memorize a picture of an object
• Then to create an image of that object in their mind and to focus on one part
• They were then asked to look at another part
• And to press the ‘true’ button when they found this part or the ‘false’ when they couldn’t

It took longer for participants to find parts that are located further from the initial point because they would be scanning the mental image
- Took it as evidence for the spatial nature of imagery

proposed Spatial/Depictive Representation

Question 11

Glen Lea [1975]

Answer 11

Proposed that as participants scanned, they may have encountered other intresting parts, and this distraction may have increased reaction time
- To counter, Kosslyn asked participants to scan a map that contained seven different locations
- Participants were then asked to scan between every possible pair of location
- The results were still the same

Question 12

Zenon Pylyshyn [1973]

Answer 12

Started Imagery debate[spatial vs propositional]
- Beleived that experienced imagery as spacial is but an epiphenomenon that accompanies the real mechanism.
- Mechanism underlying imagery involves propositional representations in which relationships can be represented by abstract symbols such as equations or statements.
- Proposes that imagery operates in a way similar to the semantic network, with distance depicted by lines between nodes rather than visual space.

Proposed Propositional Representation

Question 13

Size in the visual field

Answer 13

Kosslyn [1978]
- Asked participants to imagine two animals next to each other
- first to imagine they were standing close enough so that the larger animal filled most of their visual field
- he then asked a question about the animal that wasn’t focus and to answer the question as fast as possible
- then did the same but with the other animal in focus

[results]
-Participants aswered questions about the animal in focus faster

In a mental walking task, participants equated distance between then and the animal to their actual size they way they would in real like
- Further evidence for the idea that images are spatial just like perception.

Question 14

Imagery and Perception interacting

Answer 14

Perky [1910]
- The participant’s descriptions of their images matched the dimed images that perky was projecting in front of them.

Segal [1960]
- Found that participants would notice the projections if they weren’t asked to visualize something at the same time

Farah [1985]
-Indicated that target letter was detected more accurately when the participants had been imagening the same letter rather than a different one.

Perky Effect – visual imagery interferes with perception

Question 15

Recording from a single neuron in humans

Method

Answer 15

An electrode is planted in patient’s brain and then monitored over a period of a few days
- Experiements make it possible not only to record neural responses to stimuli
- but also to study how these neurons respond when the patients carry out cognitive activities such as imagening and remembering.

Question 16

Recording from a single neuron in humans

Method

Answer 16

An electrode is planted in patient’s brain and then monitored over a period of a few days
- Experiements make it possible not only to record neural responses to stimuli
- but also to study how these neurons respond when the patients carry out cognitive activities such as imagening and remembering.

Question 17

Kreiman et al. 2000

Imagery neurons

Answer 17

• Studied patients who had electrodes implanted in various areas in their medial temporal lobe
• found neurons that responded to a picture of a baseball, but not a picture of a face
• Neurons responded in the same way both when percieving and imagening the objects.
• Demostrated a possible physiological mechanism for imagery

Question 18

Bihan et al. [1993]

Brain activity in perception and imagery

Answer 18

Demostrated that both perception and imagery activate the visual cortex.
- Activity in the striate cortex increased both when observing and imagening the stimulus

• In another experiement it was found thinking that involved imagery generated greater visual cortex response than thinkinh that involved nonimagery

Question 19

Bihan et al. [1993]

Brain activity in perception and imagery

Answer 19

Demostrated that both perception and imagery activate the visual cortex.
- Activity in the striate cortex increased both when observing and imagening the stimulus

• In another experiement it was found thinking that involved imagery generated greater visual cortex response than thinkinh that involved nonimagery

Question 20

Bihan et al. [1993]

Brain activity in perception and imagery

Answer 20

Demostrated that both perception and imagery activate the visual cortex.
- Activity in the striate cortex increased both when observing and imagening the stimulus

• In another experiement it was found thinking that involved imagery generated greater visual cortex response than thinkinh that involved nonimagery

Question 21

Topographic Activation

Answer 21

kosslyn et al, 1995
- Specific locations on a visual stimulus cause activity at specific locations in the visual cortex
- looking at a small object causes activity in the back of the visual cortex
- looking at larger objects causes activity to spread towards the from of the visual cortex

[results]
- Both imagery and perception result in topographically organized brain activation.

Question 22

Overlap between areas of activation

Answer 22

• Ganis’s eperiment show there is almost complete overlap of activation in the front of the brain, but some difference near the back of the brain
• Amedi found that when participants used visual imagery, the response of other areas associated with non visual stimuli decreased [could be to reduce interference since imagery is more fragile]

Question 23

Multivoxel Pattern Analysis

Answer 23

• The classifier predicted the correct picture on 63% of the trials for perception
• 55% for imagery

Question 24

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Answer 24

Kosslyn et al. 1999
- After creating a visual lesion in the visual cortex
- Participants we’re slower to make decisions based on their visual imagery
- slowing effect occurred for both perception and imagery

Question 25

Removing part of the visual cortex

Answer 25

Patient M.G.S
-Had part of her right occipital lobe removed
- before operation, she estimated that she was 15 feet away for an imaginary horse in an overflow task
-After the operation her estimation increased by 35 feet
- occurred because removed part of visual cortex reduced the size of her field of view

Question 26

Unilateral Neglect

Answer 26

Caused by damage to the parietal lobe
- complete neglect of one half of the visual field
- Luzzati (1978) found that it included the ability to imagine in that half of their visual view

Question 27

Double dissociation

Answer 27

• [guarlia] perception okay, imagery neglect limited to one side
• [R.M] perception okay, imagery poor complete
• [C.K] poor perception (visual agnosies), imagery okay

Question 28

Method of loci

Answer 28

Method in which things to remember are placed at different locations in a mental image of a special layout

Question 29

Verbalizer-Visualizer Dimension

Answer 29

[Kozhevnikov et al.]
The proposal that some people solve problems through verbal-logical methods, while others do so through imagery

Question 30

Spatial imagery

Answer 30

The ability to image spatial relations

Question 31

Object Imagery

Answer 31

The ability to image visual details

Question 32

The Paper Folding Test [PFT]

Answer 32

Designed to mesure spatial imagery
- participants saw a piece of paper being folded and then pierced by a pencil
- their task is to pick from 5 choices what the paper would look like unfolded

Question 33

The Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire [VVIQ]

Answer 33

Designed to measure object imagery
- Participants rate in a 5-point scale the vividness of mental images they’re asked to create

Question 34

Imagery Test Results

Answer 34

• Low spatial imagery - low score on the PFT, 62% had a had high scores on the VVIQ did better on degraded pictures task
• High spatial imagery - high score on the PFT, 51% had a low score on the VVIQ, did better in mental rotation task

Question 35

Francis Galton

Answer 35

The idea that people differ in imagining [degrees of vividness]

Question 36

Aphantasia

Answer 36

Individuals with visual imagery that is either entirely absent, or dim and vague
- often interpret visual imagery as a metaphor
- perform well on measures of visual working memory but use different strategies
- 4% of the population

Question 37

Hyperphantasia

Answer 37

Visual imagery that is as vivid as real seeing
-Associated with an increased occurrence of synesthesia
- Greater connectivity between prefrontal and visual areas

Question 38

Auditory Imagery

Answer 38

Priming effect exist similar to visual imagery
- overlap with perceptual system

Question 39

Motor Imagery

Answer 39

Involves brain areas that are also involved in actual movement
- Mental rotation tasks can be solver with motor or visual imagery
- Primary motor cortex