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PSC 121 - Physiological Psychology > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Dopamine?

A

Catecholamine
A neurotransmitter that plays a role in reward and behavior
In mesostriatal system, it is involved in movement, destruction leads to Parkinson’s
In mesolibalcortica system,

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2
Q

What is GABA?

A

Amino Acid Neurotransmitter

The major inhibitory neurotransmitter

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3
Q

What is Glutamate?

A

Amino Acid Neurotransmitter
The major excitatory neurotransmitter
Acts on NMDS receptors, which are responsible for learning and memory
Can also trigger excitotoxicity

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4
Q

What is Serotonin?

A

Indoleamine
Implicates control of sleep states, mood, anxiety
reuptake prevention are effective antidepressants

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5
Q

What is Acetylcholine?

A

Quarternary amine
First neurotransmitter identified
Distributed via cholinergic nerve cells
Implicated in learning and memory functions along with sleep

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6
Q

What is Norepinephrine?

A

Catecholamine
Also known as noraderenaline
found in pons, midbrain, and medulla, but pathways extend broadly
Involved in mood, overall arousal, and sexual behavior

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7
Q

What is Oxytocin?

A

Peptide NT

associated with social bonding and milk production

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8
Q

What are beta-endorphins?

A

Also known as opioids

act like morphine

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9
Q

What are two types of cholinergic receptors?

A

Nicotinic and Muscarinic

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10
Q

Drugs that block which receptor impair learning and memory?

A

ACh

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11
Q

Explain the pathway for the mesostriatal system

A

The mesostriatal system is one of the pathways dopamine travels through in the brain
Stretches from the substantia nigra to the striatum (this is why it is also referred to as the mesolimbocortical system)

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12
Q

Explain the pathway for the mesolimbocortical system

A

A pathway dopamine takes through the brain

Stretches from the ventral tegmental area to the limbic areas of the brain as well as cortex

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13
Q

What neurotransmitter is expressed by the mesostriatal and mesolimbocortical system? Where is it made for each system?

A

Dopamine
originates in the substantia nigra for the mesostriatal
ventral tegmental area for mesolimbocortical

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14
Q

What area the differences in function between the mesostriatal and the mesolimbocortical systems?

A

The mesostriatal system is thought to play a role in motor control as loss of neurons in this system leads to loss of motor control and Parkinson’s disease. The mesolimbocortical system is invovled in reward and reinforcement systems (limbic system), and may be involved in schizophrenia

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15
Q

What is L-DOPA and why is it a treatment for Parkinson’s disease?

A

Parkinson’s is brought on by low levels of dopamine in the basil ganglia, which can be caused by neurosis in the substantia nigra. L-DOPA can cross the blood-brain barrier and help the brain synthesize more dopamine.

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16
Q

Where is norepinephrine produced? What is it involved in?

A

Found in the pons, midbrain, and the medulla

It is involved in processes such as mood, overall arousal, and sexual behavior

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17
Q

Where is serotonin produced? What is it involved in?

A

Located in raphe nucleus of the midbrain
Plays a role in sleep states, mood, and anxiety
Drugs that prevent reuptake are antidepressants

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18
Q

What is the most common excitatory amino acid? What about inhibitory?

A

Glutamate excitatory

GABA inhibitory

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19
Q

What is a drug?

A

Any substance that has a clear effect on experience, mood, emotion, activity, or health
many are natural in plants, but modern drugs are synthetic

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20
Q

What is an endogenous ligand?

A

A ligand is a protein that binds to a receptor like a key to a lock. Endogenous ligands are those that are made within the body

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21
Q

What is an agonist?

A

It is a chemical that activates a biological response. Opposite antagonist, which blocks the actions of an agonist

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22
Q

What is specificity?

A

It is how well a drug binds with different receptors.

A less specific drug is more flexible and vice-versa

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23
Q

What is affinity?

A

Strength of binding to a receptor

High affinity means the drug binds easily and stays longer

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24
Q

What is efficacy?

A

Effectiveness

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25
Q

What are some ways in which drugs act in the pre-synaptic neurons?

A

asdf

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26
Q

What are some ways drugs act on the post-synaptic neuron?

A

asdf

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27
Q

How do we assess relatice potencies of drugs?

A

We do so with the use of relative response curves. Through variable administration of dosage, we record the strength of response. This allows us to compare the strength of drugs

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28
Q

What is a theraputic index? Do we want a wide or narrow theraputic index?

A

The theraputic index is the space between the effective dosage and the lethal dosage. You want a large index so as to leave more wiggle room in dosage amount

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29
Q

What is secondary binding and how does it affect the dose-response curve?

A

Secondary binding is the dosage of a drug binding to other types of receptors. This leads to a monotopic curve where it may fall due to the responses of the other receptors as dosage increases

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30
Q

What is a hormone?

A

Chemical secreted into the bloodstream where it will act on specific tissues to produce some effect

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31
Q

Where are hormones produced?

A

Glands such as the endocrine and exocrine
Brain
Plants

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32
Q

Describe Berthold’s experment and what was he able to prove?

A

Berthold removed the testes from roosters and inserted them elsewhere. The rooters with the testes reinserted still underwent normal development, meaning the testes secreted chemicales that affected the body

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33
Q

Neurocrine

A

Secretory function of neurons in the synapse

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34
Q

Autocrine

A

Signal that is secreted by a cell into the environment and fed back to the cell

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35
Q

Paracrine

A

Chemical signals secreted to nearby target cells through intermediate extracellular space

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36
Q

Endocrine

A

Release of chemicals to the interior of the body

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37
Q

Pheromone

A

Chemical release outside of body to affect behavior of different body of same species

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38
Q

Allomone

A

Chemical release outside body that affects body of different species

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39
Q

What is the difference between a hormone and a neurotransmitter?

A

Hormone reactions are slower, graded (not all-or-none),

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40
Q

Chemical structure of protein hormones

A

String of amino acids

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41
Q

Chemical structure of peptide hormones

A

Smaller string of amino acids

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42
Q

Chemical structure of amine hormones

A

Have a modified single amino acid

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43
Q

Chemical structure of steroid hormones

A

Has four interconnected rings of carbon

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44
Q

Oxytocin

A

Peptide hormone

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45
Q

Testosterone

A

Steroid hormone

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46
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Amine hormone

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47
Q

Melatonin

A

Amine hormone

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48
Q

Prolactin

A

Peptide hormone

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49
Q

Vasopresin

A

Peptide hormone

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50
Q

Aldosterone

A

asdf

51
Q

What are some differences between protein and steroid hormones?

A

Protein hormones bind to the surface of a cell, alter pre-existing proteins, and act fast along with long-term effects
Steroid hormones pass through the cell membrane and bind to receptors within, affecting gene transcription (protein production), act slowly, but may also bind tot membrane receptors

52
Q

What groups of hormones are hydrophilic and which are hydrophobic?

A

Peptide hormones and amine hormones are hydrophilic (love water, so they do not pass through the membrane easily). Steroid hormones are hydrophobic

53
Q

Where do peptide and steroid hormones bind on/in a cell?

A

Peptide hormones bind to membrane receptors while steroid hormones bind to both membrane receptors and nucleus receptors

54
Q

What is positive feedback and provide an example

A

It is when a signal encourages the continued production of some input. An example would be

55
Q

What is negative feedback?

A

It is when an output signal of a system is brought back to reduce the effects of input signals (such as stopping hormone release/production)

56
Q

What hormones does the adrenal cortex produce?

A

Mineralocorticoids,

57
Q

What hormones does the hypothalamus produce?

A

Oxytocin,

58
Q

What hormones does the posterior pituitary produce?

A

Vasopressin,

59
Q

What hormones does the anterior pituitary produce?

A

ACTH, growth hormone, FSH, LH,

60
Q

What hormones does the Gonads produce?

A

Testosterone

61
Q

What hormones does the pancreas produce?

A

Insulin

62
Q

What is a releasing hormone and where is it produced?

A

Releasing hormones are those that encourage the release of tropic hormones, they are produced in the anterior pituitary

63
Q

What is a tropic hormone and where are they produced?

A

These are hormones that control the affect secretion of other endocrine glands, also produced in the anterior pituitary

64
Q

What is the HPA axis and how does negarive feedback regulate it?

A

HPA is the central stress response linking hypothalamus > anterior pituitary > adrenal cortex.
The hormones from the hypothalamus lead to production of hormones in the anterior pituitary which encourage production of crotisol, which disourages the production from both previous areas (a negative feedback).

65
Q

Explain the HPG axis and how negative feedback regulates it

A

HPG is the system that involves the production/release of testosterone and estrogen. The pathway is hypothalamus > anterior pituitary > ovaries/testes
The presence of estrogen or testosterone from the sexual glands lead to a negative feedback on the previous bodies

66
Q

What is ablation and replacement?

A

Ablation is the removal of a hormone or blocking of the receptor for a hormone to cease its effects. Replacement is the restoration of the hormone and it’s effects following ablation. It allows behavioral endocrinologists to study the hormone and its effects on behavior

67
Q

What is competitive binding? Who won the Nobel prize for this research?

A

Rosalind Yalow

68
Q

What basic information is conveyed by all sensory systems?

A

Modality
Location
Intensity
Timing

69
Q

What is the term for the type of stimulus for which a particular sensory organ is adapted?

A

Modality (touch, pain, sight, smell, etc.)

70
Q

Why do sensory systems of different species have different ranges of responsiveness?

A

Some species have adapted to improve the ranges of certain sensory systems

71
Q

What is a generator potential?

A

The steps between the impact of energy at a receptor cell and the initiation of nerve impulses. In other words, the action potential generated by impact on receptor

72
Q

Explain step by step how a vibration can be detected by your body and conveyed to your somatosensory cortex

A

The vibration is transduced into electrical information by the receptor cells, which transfer information through axons which then go to the brain.

Specifically, pacinian corpuscles detect vibration, stretch with enough stimulation until Na+ enters for action potential

73
Q

What is a slow-adapting sensory response vs. a fast-adapting sensory response?

A

Variable adaptation speeds for touch allow variability in touch. Fast response examples are pain receptors
Tonic (slow) continue to produce action potentials over a long period, giving information on duration.

74
Q

What are the three ways in which sensory activity can be supressed?

A

Sensory receptor adaptation: change in sensitivity to stimulus
Action by accessory structures: another mechanism reduces the stimulus to the receptor (closing eyelid for example)
Central modulation: top-down processing where the brain sends axons to dampen response

75
Q

What are the four types of touch receptors in your skin?

A

Pacinian corpuscle, meissner’s corpuscle, merkel’s discs, ruffini’s ending

76
Q

Pacinian corpuscle

A

Touch receptor that detects vibrations and pressure, fast adaptation

77
Q

Meissner corpuscles

A

touch receptor that detects touch, fast adaptation

78
Q

Merkel’s discs

A

touch receptor that detects touch, slow adaptation

79
Q

Ruffini’s ending

A

Touch receptor that detects stretch, slow adaptation

80
Q

What is a somatotopic map?

A

The mapping of sensory information processing areas on the brain

81
Q

What is the group of pain receptors called?

A

Nociceptors, also referred to as free nerve endings in the dermis

82
Q

What kind of receptors detect temperature heat?

A

Vanilloid receptor 1 (VR1), also detects presence of capsaicin (spicy foods)

83
Q

What receptor detects menthol?

A

CMR1, detects coolness by presence of menthol

84
Q

Explain step by step how a painful stimulus could be detected by your body, and this information conveyed to your cingulate cortex.

A

Damaged cells release chemicals that excite nociceptors, which send action potentials to the dorsal root to the dorsal horns. Information is then sent to the brainstem and thalamus and cortical areas via highly myelinated fibers, along with the cingulate cortex

85
Q

Explain step by step how your brain can then reduce your subjective feeling of pain.

A

Pain entering the forebrain, the forebrain sends information down its pathway to the spinal cord, releases opioids that inhibit the pain signals

86
Q

What area of the brain is particularly active during social exclusion (ex. During the Cyberball experiment)?

A

Cingulate cortex is still active, meaning social/emotional pain is processed in the same fashion as physical pain

87
Q

What areas of the brain are particularly active in jealous male titi monkeys?

A

Cingulate cortex???

88
Q

How are scents detected? Explain step by step from entering the nasal passageways to when the information arrives at the orbitofrontal cortex.

A

Particles of stuff enter the nostrils and reach the olfactory epithelium, a site that has the sensory neurons and dissolve in mucus. Each olfactory neuron code one kind of smell, so a pattern or collection of different sensory cells activate and send action potentials to the glomerilus, which sends info to the mitral cell and then to the brain. Information is sent to olfactory cortex as well as the limbic system. What’s unique is the information does not pass through the thalamus until after it reaches the cortex.

89
Q

What organ do animals use to detect pheromones? To where is that information then conveyed?

A

Vomeronasal organ, which then sends the information to the accessory olfactory bulb

90
Q

Can humans detect pheromones? Why or why not?

A

asdf

91
Q

What are the cells found in the retina?

A

Photorecepters (rods and cones), bipolar cells, ganglion cells
All graded except ganglion cells

92
Q

What are the two types of photoreceptor cells found in the retina? Which operate in dim light and which operate in brighter light and enable color vision?

A

Rods and cones

Rods operate in low light while cones enable color

93
Q

Which of those photoreceptor cells make up the scotopic system and which make up the photopic system?

A

The scotopic system operates in low light, meaning use of rods
The photopic system operates in high light, sensitive to color: cones

94
Q

What is the visual system responding to?

A

Changes in light

95
Q

How is each band of electromagnetic radiation measured?

A

Wavelength

96
Q

What do we call quanta with visible wavelengths?

A

Photons

97
Q

What photopigment captures quanta in rods?

A

Rhodpsin

Presence of light hyperpolarizes receptor cells,

98
Q

What happens to RETINAL and opsin when rhodopsin is activated?

A

Tetinal dissociates and opsin is activated, leading to hyperpolarization of rods and cones. This in turn reduces the release of neurotransmitters

99
Q

What does light activate due to polarization of rods and cones?

A

The reduction of neurotransmitters, which affect sensitivity, intensity, and adaptation

100
Q

How does the visual system perceive a wide range of intensities?

A

Adjustment of pupil size and range fractionation (receptors with different threshold handle different intensities)

101
Q

Visual field

A

Area you see without moving head or eyes

102
Q

Fovea

A

Area dense with cones, leading to best acuity

103
Q

Optic disc

A

Site where blood vessels enter and leave the eye

104
Q

Blind spot

A

Due to lack of photoreceptors in optic disc

105
Q

Saccades

A

Constantly shift eyes so that adaptation doesn’t cause a scene to disappear

106
Q

Lateral inhibition in the retina

A

When interconnected neurons inhibit neighbors and produce contrast
Explains why we see the gray illusion

107
Q

What form the optic nerve? Where do they cross the midline? What are they called after they cross the midline?

A

Ganglion cells
Cross at optic chiasm
Called optic tract afterwards

108
Q

Where do axons of the optic tract synapse? What do the axons of the postsynaptic cells form?

A

Optic tract synapse to the LGN

Axons of post synaptic cells form the optic radiations, terminating in the striate cortex

109
Q

What is the extrastriate cortex?

A

Striate cortex outside the striate cortex.

110
Q

What is retinotopic mapping and what is scotoma

A

Mapping of the visual fiel on the visual system

Scotoma is a spot where nothing can be perceived

111
Q

What are biological rhythms?

A

Short or long term predicatable changes, such as circadian rhythms

112
Q

What is free-running?

A

Rhythm of behavior shown as animal deprived of external cues

113
Q

What is a zeitgeber?

A

External stimulus that entrains circadian rhythm, such as light or mother’s womb

114
Q

What is a period?

A

Interval of time between similar points of a cycle (think of wavelengths)

115
Q

What is a phase shift?

A

The shift of activity produced by synchronizing stimulus

116
Q

What is entrainment?

A

Process of shifting the rhythm

117
Q

What is the retinohypothalamic pathway, and how does it entrain the SCN to light?

A

Deals with circadian rhythm, leads to hypothalamus and SCN. SCN tells us when it is daytime, active when there is light, has different affects on normal and nocturnal creatures (negative feedback loop)

118
Q

What is the light-responsive pigment in the retinohypothalamic pathway?

A

Melanopsin

119
Q

How do we know that rods and cones must have some capability for entrainment to light?

A

Photoreceptors are in the pathway to SCN

120
Q

Explain the molecular events in the SCN that entrain it to light cycles and allow it to keep a biological rhythm.

A

Mammal SCN has clock and cycle that bind into dimer. Dimer binds to DNA to promote transcription of per and cry. These form tau. Negative feedback: it inhibits activity of dimer, breaksdown and releases clock and cycle, starting over again.

121
Q

8) What are the terms for rhythms that last a) a day, b) less than a day, c) more than a day? What are examples for each?

A

a) Circadian ex. sleep
b) Ultradian ex. feeding
c) Infradian ex. menstrual

122
Q

Explain how the hormone melatonin can interact with the HPG axis to regulate the seasonality of breeding.

A

asdf

123
Q

Howw long is the human free-running period?

A

25 hours

124
Q

What are the stages of sleep and how is each defined? As in, what kind of wave patterns are detected by EEG in each stage of sleep?

A

Defined by brain potentials and eye movements
SWS (1-3)
REM (dreams)

PSC 121 - Physiological Psychology (5 decks)

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