Midterm 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What did the case of Mike May reveal about visual information?
A
- Seeing takes place as much as in the brain as in the eyes
- Neurons in the visual cortex often process other kinds of sensory information, such as touch and sound, in people who have no vision
- Mike’s visual cortex took on different functions
2
Q
What is sensation?
A
The response of our sense organs to stimulation by the outer world i.e. eyes are sensitive to light waves, ears to sounds, skin to touch & pressure, etc.
3
Q
What is perception?
A
The act of organizing and interpreting sensory experience. It is how our psychological world represents our physical world. i.e. if you had not been taught to read, the words on a page would just be shapes
4
Q
___ involves transduction of the physical world into neural impulses
A
Sensation
5
Q
___ involves binding these sensory impulses into a representation of the world
A
Perception
6
Q
Sensory impulses are processed by ___
A
Distinct brain regions - Frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe
7
Q
The frontal lobe involves which 3 things?
A
1) Frontal association cortex
2) Speech
3) Motor cortex
8
Q
The parietal lobe involves which 5 things?
A
1) Somatosensory cortex
2) Somatosensory association area
3) Speech
4) Taste
5) Reading
9
Q
The temporal lobe involves which 3 things?
A
1) Hearing
2) Auditory association area
3) Smell
10
Q
The occipital lobe involves which 2 things?
A
1) Vision
2) Visual association area
11
Q
What is psychophysics?
A
The relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations/perceptions about them that we experience. Measuring sensation.
12
Q
What do Psychophysicists study?
A
1) Detection
2) Discrimination
13
Q
What is Detection Threshold?
A
The quantitative amount of a stimulus required to be detected
14
Q
What is an Absolute Threshold?
A
The intensity at which a stimulus is detected 50% (half) of the time
15
Q
If you were constantly aware of the sensations which bombarded your sense organs, you would suffer from ___
A
Sensory overload
16
Q
What is sensory adaptation?
A
The process by which our sensitivity diminishes when an object constantly stimulates our senses
17
Q
Why is a stimulus at the absolute threshold not always detected?
A
- Motivation
- Attention
- Ambient noise
- Practice
18
Q
What is signal detection theory?
A
The viewpoint that both stimulus intensity and decision-making processes are involved in the detection of a stimulus
19
Q
What are the 4 possible outcomes of signal detection?
A
1) Hit
2) Miss
3) False Alarm
4) Correct Rejection
20
Q
Correctly detecting a stimulus that is there is known as a ___
A
Hit
21
Q
Failing to detect a stimulus that is there is known as a ___
A
Miss
22
Q
Saying that a stimulus exists when it does not is known as a ___
A
False Alarm
23
Q
Not reporting a stimulus that is not there is known as a ___
A
Correct Rejection
24
Q
Using the classic method of absolute threshold, a person’s threshold is assumed to be ___
A
Constant (i.e. sound intensity of 40 db)
25
Why study difference thresholds?
- Absolute threshold gives us information about only one aspect of sensation -- detection
- Permits comparison of our sensitivity to different
amounts or types of sensory stimuli
26
What is just noticeable / difference threshold?
The smallest amount of change between two stimuli that a person can detect half of the time
27
What is Weber's Law?
For stimulus to be detected as different from the comparison 50% of the time, the intensity of a comparison stimulus must change by a fixed proportion of the standard stimulus. e.g. by 2%, 5% or 10% of a standard stimulus
28
Perception happens in the ___ after ___ of the stimulus at the ___
Brain; Transduction; Sense Organ
29
What is bottom-up processing?
Assembling a perceptual experience from its basic elements
30
What is top-down processing?
Perception of the whole based on our experience and expectations, which guide our perception of smaller elemental features of a stimulus
31
What is a perceptual set?
The effect of frame of mind on perception
32
The conversion of physical into neural information is called ___
Transduction
33
Visible light ranges from about ___ nanometres (violet) to about ___ nanometres (red)
300; 750
34
What are the properties of light?
- light is a result of electromagnetic waves
- electromagnetic (light) waves can have different wave lengths
- visible light take up only a small amount if the electromagnetic spectrum
35
What does the eye do?
- Bends light
- Converts light energy to neural energy
- Sends that information to the brain for further processing
36
Light enters the eye at the ___
Cornea (clear hard covering that protects the lens)
37
The opening in the iris through which light enters the eye is the ___
Pupil
38
What is the iris?
The muscle that forms the colored parts of the eye; it adjusts the pupil to control the amount of light entering the eye
39
What are lens?
Structure that sits behind the pupil; it bends the light rays that enter the eye to focus images on the retina
40
What is the retina?
The thin layer of nerve tissues that line the back of the eye
41
What is accommodation?
The process by which the muscles control the shape of the lens to adjust viewing objects at different distances
42
When light enters the eye, the lens bends the light in such a way that the image is ___ compared to the orientation of the object in the outside world
Upside-down
43
The ___ can be considered as an extension of the brain (because the cells contained are actually neurons)
Retina
44
What are photoreceptors?
Cells in the retina called rods and cones that convert light energy into nerve energy (they are transducers)
45
The ___ are the only retinal cell type responsive to light; the other cell types are responsive to neurotransmitters
Photoreceptors
46
What are ganglion cells?
Carries visual information from the eye to the brain; their axons make up the optic nerve
47
What are bipolar cells?
Links the photoreceptors with the ganglion cells
48
What are horizontal cells?
Responsible for modulating activity at the photoreceptor-bipolar cell synapse
49
What are amacrine cells?
Responsible for modulating activity at the bipolar-ganglion cell synapse
50
What are rods?
Photoreceptors that function in low illumination and play a key role in night vision
51
What are cones?
Photoreceptors that are responsible for color vision and are most functions in conditions of bright light
52
There are ___ million rods in comparison to ___ million cones
120 rods; 6 million cones
53
Cones are less numerous than rods and are mainly located in the ___
Fovea
54
What is the fovea?
An area in the centre of the retina that corresponds to our central focus of visual space
55
Rods are located in the ___
Periphery
56
The light-sensitive protein responsible for transduction in rods is known as ___
Rhodopsin
57
The light-sensitive proteins responsible for transduction in cones are known as ___
Photopsins
58
What is dark adaptation?
Process of adjustment to seeing in dim light
59
What is light adaptation?
Process of adjustment to seeing in bright light
60
What is the optic nerve?
Arises from the axons of the ganglion cells, transmits signals from the eye to the brain
61
The point at which the optic nerve exits the eye is the ___ of the retina
- Why?
Blind spot
| - This location has no receptor cells and therefore nothing is seen
62
What happens when visual information arrives in the brain?
The optic nerve carries impulses to the thalamus and to the visual cortex of the occipital lobes
Optic nerve --> thalamus --> visual cortex of occipital lobes
63
Each optic nerve has ___ strands
Two
64
What is optic chiasm?
Strands of the optic nerve from half of each eye cross over to the opposite side of the brain
65
A cluster of the neuron cell bodies in the thalamus form the ___
Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
66
What is the visual receptive field?
The region of visual space to which a cell will respond
67
What is the schlera?
White part of the eye
68
What does the eyebrows and eyelashes do?
Protect the eye from any debris
69
A ___ cell responds only to visual stimuli that stay still or are in the middle of its receptive field
Simple
70
A ___ cell receive input from many different simple cells and are receptive to particular stimuli in different parts of the receptive field
Complex
71
A ___ cell receives inputs from many complex cells, and fire in response to patterns of lines
Hypercomplex
72
Neurons called ___ in the visual cortex analyze the retinal image and respond to aspects of shapes, such as angles and moments
Shape responsive cells
73
How did Hubel and Wiesel discover that some cortical neurons responded to seeing lines of a specific orientation?
By inserting electrodes into single cells in the visual cortex
74
What is apparent motion?
Illusion that makes us think something is moving when it is not
75
What is Exotopia?
Eye turns out (medial rectus too long)
76
What is Esotopia?
Eye turns in (medial rectus too short, lateral too long)
77
Cornea - transparent - focus light ___%
80
78
Lens - focus light - ___%
20
79
"Old man sight" is known as ___
Presbyotopia
80
Under dim conditions the pupil dilates, under bright constrictions the pupil constricts. This is known as ___
Pupillary response
81
Phototransduction begins when photo pigment ___
Absorbs light
82
Each cell in the retina has different receptive fields.
Smallest:
Larger:
Largest:
Photoreceptor;
Bipolar cells;
Ganglion cells
83
What is Trichromatic Theory?
- Primary colors: red, green, blue
- 3 different types of cells in retina (3 different cones)
- Each cell is most sensitive to either red, green, blue
84
What is Opponent-process Theory?
- Cones connect in retina in a combined way
| - Cells have channels for each color
85
The ability to see things in 3 dimensions and to discriminate what is near from what is far is known as ___
Depth perception
86
Aid to depth perception that rely on input from both eyes is known as ___
Binocular depth cues
87
Two major aspects of human visual anatomy and processing allow for depth perception:
1) Binocular depth cues
| 2) Monocular depth cues
88
What are the two types of Binocular depth cues?
1) Binocular Disparity
| 2) Convergence
89
What is binocular disparity?
The difference in image location if an object seen by the left and right eyes, resulting from the eyes' horizontal separation
90
What is convergence?
The way in which the eyes moves inward as an object moves closer to you
91
What are the 6 types of Monocular depth cues?
1) Linear Perspective
2) Texture Gradient
3) Atmospheric Perspective
4) Interposition
5) Light and Shadow
6) Motion Parallax
92
What is linear perspective?
Appear to converge in the distance i.e. parallel lines such as railroad tracks
93
What is texture gradient?
Causes the texture of a surface to appear more tightly packed together and denser as the surface moves to the background
- help us judge depth
i. e. field of flowers
94
What is atmospheric perspective?
Looking across a vast space into the distance in the outdoors i.e. hot air balloon
95
What is interposition?
The partial blocking of objects farther away from the viewer by objects closer to the viewer (often overlap)
i.e. lemons
96
The ability of the brain to preserve perception of objects in spite of changes in retinal image is known as ___
Perceptual constancy
97
What are the two types of perceptual constancy?
Size and shape
98
What is size constancy?
We see things as the same size regardless of the changing size of the image on the retina
99
What is shape constancy?
People know that the shapes of common things just as they know their sizes
i.e. door open, partially open, and closed (we still know the actual shape of the door)
100
What are the 5 major Gestalt laws of visual organization?
- Similarity
- Continuity
- Proximity
- Closure
- Figure-ground
101
The Gestalt tendency to group like objects together in visual perception is known as ___
Similarity
102
The Gestalt tendency to see points or lines in such a way that they follow a continuous path is known as ___
Continuity
103
The Gestalt tendency to group objects together that are near one another is known as ___
Proximity
104
The Gestalt tendency to see a whole object even when complete information isn't available is known as ___
Closure
105
The human retina contains ___ kinds of receptor cones, each sensitive to different wavelengths of light
3
106
Red cones are most responsive to wavelengths of light in the ___ end of the visual spectrum
Longer
107
Green cones are most responsive to ___ light
Medium-wavelength
108
Blue cones are most responsive to ___ light
Shorter-wavelength
109
Visual images that remain after removal of or looking away from the stimulus are known as ___
Afterimages
110
The most common form of color blindness results from a deficiency of the green ___-wavelength sensitive cones
Medium
111
What fibres make up the optic nerve?
Axons from ganglion cells of the retina
112
After leaving the retina, what is the first stop in the brain for processing of visual information?
The thalamus
113
Which of the following is NOT a monocular depth cue?
a. linear perspective
b. convergence
c. texture gradient
d. interposition
b. convergence
114
The ability of the brain to preserve perception of objects in spite of the changes in retinal image is known as ___
perceptual constancy
115
___ is designed to detect sound waves
The auditory system
116
___ are required to generate sound waves
Air molecules
117
Human can detect all frequencies between _ and _ Hz
20 Hz; 20,000 Hz
118
Most sounds we hear are in the ranges from _ to _ Hz
400; 4000
119
The third property, ___, refers to the complexity of the wave
Purity
120
The tympanic membrane is known as the ___
Eardrum
121
The outer part of the ear is called ___
Pinnae
122
The outer ear is made up of _ and _
Auditory canal and tympanic membrane
123
The middle ear is made up of _, _, and _
Hammer; anvil; stirrup
124
The inner ear includes the _ and the _
Semicircular canals; cochlea
125
The pathway of sound is best described as:
| _ --> _ --> _ --> _ --> _ --> _ --> _ --> _ --> _
Pinna; auditory canal; tympanic membrane; ossicles; oval window; cochlea; hair cells; auditory nerve; brain
126
The cochlea uses two methods to code the frequency of sounds:
1) Phase-locking
| 2) Place coding
127
What is a result of hearing loss due to being exposed to loud noises over a long period of time?
Hair cells damaged
128
After the sound energy is changed to neural energy in the cochlea, the _ synapse with the _ that transmit the sound impulses to the _ in the brain
Hair cells; auditory neurons; thalamus
129
The auditory pathways go from the _ to the _ in the brain stem and from there to the _ of the _, and from there to the _ cortex in the _ lobe
Cochlea; inferior colliculus; medial geniculate nucleus; thalamus; auditory; temporal
130
The left auditory cortex is more active in processing _ and _
Speech; language
131
The right auditory cortex is more active in processing _
Non-verbal stimuli
132
The ___ of a sound wave determines what we perceive as loudness
Amplitude
133
Which structure is responsible for the transduction of sound vibrations into action potentials?
Hair cells
134
The largest contact surface area any sensory input has with our bodies is the _, and it is carefully mapped in the _ _ in the _ lobe of the brain
Skin; somatosensory cortex; parietal
135
What are the 6 distinct bodily or somatic senses?
1) Touch
2) Temperature
3) Pain
4) Position / motion
5) Balance
6) Interoception (perception of bodily sensations)
136
Tactile sensations from our skin travel via __ to the __ and up to the brain
Sensory neurons; spinal cord
137
The first major structure involved in processing bodily sensations is the _ which relays the impulses to the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobes
Thalamus
138
What is loudness coded by?
1) the degree of hair cell bending
| 2) neurons that are activated only after a threshold level of hair cell bending
139
What is Frequency theory?
The frequency of nerve impulses sent
| to the brain match the frequency of the sound
140
What is Place theory?
Sound frequencies are coded at different positions along the basilar membrane.
141
What is Interaural Time Difference?
Difference in the time it takes a sound
| to reach each ear
142
When a sound reaches both ears at the same time it is perceived to originate from a source ___
Directly ahead
143
When the sound reaches the right ear first it is perceived to originate from a source ___
To the right
144
As the interaural time difference increases, the source of the sound is perceived to ___ increasingly from ___
Deviate; center
145
The skin has pain receptors that are sensitive to:
Heat, cold, chemical irritation, and pressure. All of which are kinds of NOCICEPTORS
146
What is the gate control theory of pain?
Idea that the spinal cord regulates the experience of pain by either activating or inhibiting neural networks called gates, involved in pain sensations (pain messages get sent to brain)
147
Which neurotransmitter is involved in reducing the response to pain?
Opioids
148
___ are a class of drug known as analgesics, and they mimic the effects of the body's endogenous opioids, such as endorphins
Opiates
149
Morphine, heroin, oxycodone, and hydrocodone are all ___
Opioids
150
How do opioids lessen pain?
Blocking neural activity involved in pain perception
151
The receptor cells for touch that reside in the skin are called:
Mechanoreceptors
152
Our bodies have natural painkillers called:
Endorphins
153
Smell and taste are __ senses, because they respond to contact with molecules from objects we encounter in the world
Chemical
154
Olfactory sensory neurons are the sensory receptors for __
Smell
155
__ is a forebrain structure that sends information either directly to the smell-processing area in the cortex or indirectly to the cortex by way of the thalamus
Olfactory bulb
156
The primary olfactory cortex resides in the __ lobe; the secondary olfactory cortex is in the __ lobe near the eyes
Temporal; frontal
157
There may be as many as __ different olfactory sensory receptors
1000
158
The ridges and bumps on the human tongue are called __ and they contain about __ taste buds
Papillae; 10,000
159
The papillae in the __ part of the tongue contain no taste buds and no taste receptor cells
Central
160
Experience of flavor results from the combination of _ plus _
Taste; smell
161
On the tongue, bitter is tasted on the _ of the tongue. Sour is tasted on the _ of the tongue. Salty/sweet is tasted on the _ of the tongue.
Back; sides; tip
162
The primary olfactory cortex resides in which lobe of the brain?
Temporal
163
How does synesthesia happen?
Results from a cross-wiring or cross-activation of sensory neurons in parts of the brain
164
What is consciousness?
Awareness of one’s surroundings and of what’s in
| one’s mind
165
The two dimensions of consciousness are:
1) Wakefulness
| 2) Awareness
166
Coma results from illness or brain injury that damages _ and _, that control wakefulness
Reticular formation; thalamus
167
What is the vegetative state?
A state of minimal consciousness in which the eyes might be open, but the person is unresponsive
"Wakefulness without awareness"
168
A coma is assessed using what?
Glasgow Coma Scale
169
What is Locked-in Syndrome?
Muscle paralysis but cognitively intact
| - Result as a damage to the pons in the brainstem
170
A heightened awareness of the present moment, of events in one's environment and events in one's own mind is known as __
Mindfulness
171
What is selective attention?
The ability to focus awareness on specific features in the environment while ignoring others
172
The ability to filter our auditory stimuli and then to refocus attention when you hear your name is called __
Cocktail party effect
173
This phenomenon by which we fail to notice unexpected objects in our surroundings is referred to as ___
Inattentional blindness
174
The __ states that we do not notice potential distracters when a primary task consumes all of our attention capacity
Perceptual load model
| i.e. turning down radio when parking
175
The ability to maintain focused awareness on a target or idea is known as __
Sustained attention
176
One tool that researchers use to study sustained attention is the __
Continuous Performance Test (CPT)
177
What term best describes not perceiving a person in a gorilla suit when asked to count the number of people playing basketball?
Inattentional blindness
178
What creates gaps in attention and perception?
Selective attention
179
If you suffered a traumatic head injury that produced extensive damage to your suprachiasmatic nucleus, you would most likely:
Have normal amounts of sleep but it would occur throughout the day and night rather than being restricted to the night.
act out your dreams
180
When slow, large delta waves dominate the EEG pattern, a person is probably in _____ sleep:
Stage 4
181
By measuring the acoustic arousal threshold researchers have found that ______ stage is the most difficult to wake someone using sound
Stage 4
182
Which of the following refers to the pattern followed by a typical human episode of sleep?
a. circadian rhythm
b. free-running rhythm
c. cyclic rhythm
d. ultradian rhythm
e. nocturnal rhythm
d. Ultradian rhythm
183
It is postulated that brain activity during REM sleep may serve to strengthen memories of important information assimilated during the day in a process called:
Memory Consolidation
184
Which of the following is a component of the Glasgow Coma Scale, used in medicine to assess the degree of coma?
- EEG
- nerve damage
- verbal responsiveness
- emotional responsiveness
- ERP
Verbal responsiveness
185
According to Weber’s Law, the size of the difference threshold is a constant fraction of?
The standard stimulus intensity
186
Cells in the olfactory system that detect odor molecules are called?
Olfactory sensory neurons
187
The ear drum is also known as the:
Tympanic membrane
188
The phenomenon of colour afterimages is not explained with which theory of colour?
Trichromatic theory
189
The layers of the retina are organized, from the front of the eye to the back, in which order?
Ganglion cells, amacrine cells, bipolar cells, horizontal cells, photoreceptors
190
After crossing over at the optic chiasm, the neural signal is sent to the _____, a cluster of neuron cell bodies located in the thalamus
Lateral geniculate nucleus
191
Which part of the eye is responsible for bending light so that it can be focused onto the retina?
Lens
192
The process whereby brightness sensitivity progressively improves under conditions of low lighting is called?
Dark adaptation
193
Studies show that meditation enhances:
- Mindfulness
- Well-being
- Attention
194
A study of brain images experienced mediators and a comparison group of non-mediators found that the experienced mediators' brains showed evident of:
Thicker cortex in brain areas associated with attention and sensitivity to sensory information
195
What are the two essential features of sleep?
- There is a perceptual wall between the conscious mind and the outside world
- Sleeping state can be immediately reversed
196
What are circadian rhythms?
Physiological processes that cycle within an approximate 24-hour period
197
What are ultradian rhythms?
Physiological processes that repeat in a cycle of LESS than 24 hours
198
What are free-running rhythms?
Internally generated rhythm living in the absence of time
| - "time-free environment"
199
What are rapid eye movements (REM)?
Quick movements of eye that occur during sleep, thought to mark phases of dreaming
200
When we are awake, brain activity is characterized by rapid waves known as __
Beta waves
201
When we are awake but relaxed and drowsy, our brain activity switches to slower waves known as __
Alpha waves
202
Which types of waves also occur during REM sleep?
Beta and Alpha waves
203
Only __ - __ percent of a typical night is spent in REM sleep
15;20
204
How many stages of non-REM sleep are there?
4
205
When we enter stage 1 (LIGHT SLEEP) of sleep, our brain waves change to __ waves, which are slower than Alpha waves
Theta
206
After about 5-7 minutes of stage 1 sleep, we move to stage 2 sleep. Stage 2 EEG is predominantly __ waves but also includes short periods of extremely fast higher-energy __ __
Theta; sleep spindles
-->K-complexes (sudden)
207
Stage 3 sleep initially consists of __ waves with much slower __ waves
Theta; Delta
208
As we progress through stage 3 sleep, more and more __ waves appear and there are fewer and fewer _ _ and __
Delta; sleep spindles; K-complexes
209
Sleep stages 3 and 4, which contain the highest proportion of slow Delta waves, are often referred to as ___
Slow-wave sleep
210
The amount of it sound required for awakening is called the __
Acoustic arousal threshold
211
What happens in REM sleep?
- Return to beta-like activity
- Shares characteristics with
wakefulness
- Increase heart rate, blood pressure, respiration
- Eye movement, muscle twitching
- Time when dreams occur?
212
Most drug treatments for insomnia work by increasing the effects of the neurotransmitter _
GABA
| - decreases CNS activity
213
What is sleep apnea?
Temporary blockage of the air way
| - stops breathing for short amount of time
214
When does sleepwalking occur?
Occurring during non-REM
215
A neurotransmitter important for arousal is __
Orexin
216
What is Narcolepsy?
Sleep disorder - excessive daytime sleepiness and weakness in facial and limb muscles
217
What is hypersomnia?
Sleep difficulty by sleeping more than 10 hours a day for two weeks straight
- strong urge to nap during inappropriate times
218
What is manifest level?
Freud's surface level of dreams, recalled upon awakening
219
What is latent level?
Freud's deeper unconscious level of dreams; their meaning is found at this level
220
The body has an internal timekeeper located in the __, called the suprachiasmatic nucleus
Hypothalamus
221
What does the suprachiasmatic nucleu (SCN) do?
Regulates physiological activity on daily cycles
| - signals the pineal gland to decrease the amount of melatonin it releases
222
The basal forebrain contains neurons that produce the neurotransmitter __
Acetylcholine
| - produces rapid pattern of EEG activation during waking and REM sleep
223
Delta waves occur during which stage of sleep?
Stage 3 and 4
224
The sleep disorder narcolepsy is thought to be caused by a deficiency in the neurotransmitter:
Orexin
225
According to recent research, hypnosis used in conjunction with nicotine replacement therapy is particularly useful for quitting smoking in people who have a history of:
Depression
226
What are Psychoactive drugs?
- Change conscious experience
| - Tolerance after prolonged use
227
Repeated use of a psychoactive drug usually leads to __
Tolerance
| - a reduction in the effects experienced by the user
228
What is an Agonist drug?
Mimics neurotransmitter
229
What is an Antagonist drug?
Blocks neurotransmitter
230
What is addiction?
Compulsive use despite negative consequences
231
Why is cocaine an agonist drug?
- Cocaine blocks reuptake protein
- more neurotransmitter in synapse
- enhances dopamine
232
Which psychoactive drugs are Depressants?
- Alcohol (agonist) - relaxation, depressed brain activity [increase effect of GABA and serotonin, decrease effect of (antagonist for) Glutamate]
- Sedatives (agonist) - relaxation, sleep [increase effect of GABA]
- Opiates - pain relief, euphoria [increase effect at opioid receptors]
233
Which psychoactive drugs are Stimulants?
- Caffeine (antagonist) - alertness, increased HR, nervousness [decrease effect of adenosine]
- Nicotine (agonist) - arousal, stimulation, increased HR [increase effect at acetylcholine receptors]
- Cocaine (agonist) - exhilaration, euphoria, irritability [decrease synaptic reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, noadrenaline]
- Amphetamines - increased alertness, difficulty concentrating, excitability [increase release of synaptic dopamine , serotonin, noadrenaline]
- Ecstasy - mild amphetamine and hallucinogenic effects, body temperature, social [increase release of serotonin, noadrenaline, and dopamine]
234
Which psychoactive drugs are Hallucinogens?
- Marijuana (agonist) - Euphoric feelings, relaxation, time distortion, fatigue, attention and memory impairment [increase effect at cannabinoid receptors]
- LSD (agonist) - Strong hallucinogens, distorted time perception, synesthesia [increase effects at some types of serotonin receptor]
235
Benzodiazepines, used to treat anxiety and insomnia, have a mechanism of action most similar to that of _
Alcohol
236
Anatomy of Reward includes:
- prefrontal cortex
- nucleus accumbens
- ventral tegmental area
