Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Doctors removed the __ lobes on both sides of H.M.’s brain, which resulted in the loss of several brain structures, including the __
A
Temporal; hippocampus
2
Q
H.M. lost the ability to __
A
Form new memories
3
Q
Despite H.M.’s inability to form new memories of events in his life, he was capable of learning new __
A
Motor skills
4
Q
What is memory?
A
The ability to store and use information; also the store of what has been learned and remembered
5
Q
What are the two types of long-term memory?
A
1) Explicit
2) Implicit
6
Q
What is explicit memory?
A
The conscious recall of facts and events and is sometimes called declarative memory because it refers to memories that can be deliberately accessed or declared
7
Q
What is implicit memory?
A
Kind of memory made of of knowledge based on previous experience, such as skills that we perform automatically once we have mastered them; resides outside conscious awareness
- Known as non-declarative memory (not easily described using words)
8
Q
What is the three-stage model of memory?
A
Classification of memories based on duration as sensory, short-term, and long-term
9
Q
What is sensory memory?
A
The part of memory that holds information in its original sensory form for a very brief period of time (usually few seconds or less)
10
Q
What is short-term memory?
A
The part of temporary memory that temporarily stores a limited amount of information before it is either transferred to a long-term storage or forgotten
11
Q
Sensory memory has a _ capacity, and a _ duration
A
Large; short
12
Q
Working (short-term) memory has a _ capacity, and a _ duration
A
Small; short
13
Q
Long-term memory has a _ capacity, and a _ duration
A
Very high; long
14
Q
Visual information is known as __
A
Iconic memory
- Duration: 1/3 sec
15
Q
Audio information is known as __
A
Echoic memory
- Duration: 2 sec
16
Q
What is working memory?
A
The part of memory required to attend to and solve a problem at hand
17
Q
Short-term memory emphasizes the __ of this type of memory, while the phrase working memory emphasizes its __
A
Duration; function
18
Q
What is the working memory capacity?
A
7 items on average, with a range of 5 to 9 units
i.e. local phone numbers
19
Q
What is chunking?
A
The process of breaking down a list of items to be remembered into a smaller set of meaningful units
20
Q
According to Baddeley’s model, working memory is made up of three temporary storage systems:
A
1) Phonological (for sounds and language)
2) Visuospatial (for images and spatial relations)
3) Episodic buffer (connects the two storage systems, interacts with long-term memory, and provides temporary storage for specific events)
21
Q
What is the central executive?
A
Focuses, divides, and shifts attention and also communicates with long-term memory systems
22
Q
Baddeley proposed that working memory operated via three distinct processes:
A
1) Attending to a stimulus
2) Storing information about the stimulus
3) Rehearsing the stored information to help solve a problem
23
Q
What is rehearsal?
A
The process of reciting or practicing material repeatedly (so that it enters long-term memory)
24
Q
A brief record of a visual scene is known as __
A
Iconic memory
25
A short-term retention of sounds is known as __
Echoic memory
26
Implicit memory is made up of __ and __
Procedural memory; priming
27
Explicit memory is made up of __ and __
Semantic; Episodic
28
The __ assists the __ by providing extra storage for a limited number of digits or words for up to __ seconds at a time
Phonological loop; central executive; 30
29
The __ buffer is less well understood than the other components of working memory
Episodic
30
The three different levels of processing are:
1) Structural (shallow/low)
2) Phonemic
3) Semantic (deep/high)
31
What is serial position effect?
The tendency to have better recall for items in a list according to their position in the list
i.e. when learning a list of items, people are better able to recall items at the beginning and end of the list and tend to forget the items in the middle
32
What is primacy effect?
The tendency to preferentially recall items at the beginning of a list
33
What is recency effect?
The tendency to recall items at the end of a list
34
What is the main explanation offered for the primacy effect (items in the beginning of the list are remembered)?
Quickly rehearsed and transferred to long-term memory storage, so they are remembered
35
What is procedural memory?
Refers to the knowledge we hold for almost any behavior or physical skill we learn
i.e.drive a car, tie a shoe
36
What is priming?
Occurs when recall is improved by prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli
37
What is semantic memory?
Form of memory that recalls facts and general knowledge, such as what we learn in school
38
What is episodic memory?
Form of memory that recalls the experiences we have had
| i.e. remembering your high school graduation
39
What is encoding?
The process by which the brain attends to, takes in, and integrates new information; the first stage of long-term memory formation
40
What is automatic processing?
Encoding of information that occurs with little effort or conscious attention to the task
41
What is effortful processing?
Encoding of information that occurs with careful attention and conscious effort
42
Effortful processing usually involves __ of the information, so that it goes from __ to __ memory
Rehearsal; short-term; long-term
43
What are levels of processing?
The concept that the more deeply people encode information, the better they will recall it
44
When asked a question such as "Is the word in capital letters?" that is __ processing
Structural
| - focusing on the structure of the word
45
When asked a question such as "Does the word rhyme with ___?" that is __ processing
Phonemic
| - focusing on sound of the word
46
When asked a question such as "Would the word fit the sentence: 'He met a ___ in the street'?" that is __ processing
Semantic
| - focusing on the meaning of the words
47
Name the four stages of long-term memory in order:
1) Encoding
2) Consolidation
3) Storage
4) Retrieval
48
A common way to encode information deeply is to devise __ devices
Mnemonic
49
A __ device is a method devised to help remember information, such as a rhyme or acronym
Mnemonic
50
What are the 5 types of mnemonic devices?
1) Rhyming*
2) Chunking*
3) Rehearsal*
4) Imagery
5) Acronyms
51
The theory proposing that visual and verbal information are processed by independent, non-competing systems is known as __
Dual coding theory
52
What is consolidation?
The process of establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory; the second stage of long-term memory formation
53
What is storage?
The retention of memory over time; the third stage of long-term memory formation
54
We organize and store memories in at least three distinct ways:
1) Hierarchies
2) Schemas
3) Networks
55
What are hierarchies?
A way of organizing related pieces of information from the most specific feature they have in common to the most general
56
What are schemas?
Mental frameworks that develop from our experiences with particular people, objects, or events
57
The psychological process that binds concepts together is __
Association
58
A __ is a chain of associations between related concepts. Each concept or association in a network is referred to as a __.
Associative network. Node.
59
What is retrieval?
The recovery of information stored in memory; the fourth stage of long-term memory formation
60
__ memories are easier to recall than __ ones
Emotional; factual
61
Stressful emotions may both enhance the __ of information and impair the __ of emotional memories
Encoding; retrieval
62
A vivid memory for an emotional event of great significance is known as __
Flashbulb memory
63
H.M. had damage to which structure crucial for memory?
a. insula
b. hippocampus
c. thalamus
d. hypothalamus
b. hippocampus
64
The brief traces of a touch or smell left by the firing of neurons in the brain are examples of
a. working memory
b. iconic memory
c. long-term memory
d. sensory memory
d. sensory memory
65
What kind of memory do we use to keep someone's phone number in mind right after we've learned it?
a. working memory
b. iconic memory
c. long-term memory
d. sensory memory
a. working memory
66
What sort of memory allows us to perform skills, such as tying our shoes automatically, once we have mastered them?
a. explicit memory
b. declarative memory
c. procedural memory
d. echoic memory
c. procedural memory
67
What is interference?
Disruption of memory because other information competes with the information we are trying to recall
68
Interference can happen in one of two ways:
1) Retroactive interference
| 2) Proactive interference
69
What is proactive interference?
Disruption of memory because previously learned information interferes with the learning of new information
i.e. Learn A, learn B
Remember B
A interferes
70
What is retroactive interference?
Disruption of memory because new experiences or information cause people to forget previously learned experiences or information
i.e. You may have difficulty skiing because of recently learning how to snowboard
71
New experiences cause forgetting of previously learned information is known as __
Retroactive interference
72
Previous experiences interfere with learning of new information is known as __
Proactive interference
73
What are The Seven Sins of Omission?
1) Transience
2) Absent-mindedness
3) Blocking
4) Misattribution
5) Consistency Bias
6) Persistence
7) Suggestibility
74
What is transience?
Most common type of forgetfulness due to the fleeting nature of some memories
75
What is absent-mindedness?
A form of forgetfulness that results from inattention
| i.e. Sandra looking all over her house for her car keys, only to later realize they are still in the ignition
76
What is blocking?
The inability to retrieve some information once it is stored
77
What is repression?
A form of blocking, in which retrieval of memories that have been encoded and stored is actively inhibited
78
Sins of __ consist of forgetting, absent-mindedness, and blocking
Omission
79
Sins of __ consist of distorting, reconstructing, or falsely remembering events
Commission
80
What is misattribution?
Belief that a memory came from one source when in fact it came from another
81
What is cryptomnesia?
Another form of misattribution; a person unintentionally plagiarizes someone else's ideas, believing that an idea is original or new when in fact it originated with someone else
82
What is persistence?
The repeated recall of pleasant or unpleasant experiences even when we actively try to forget them
83
What is suggestibility?
Problem with memory that occurs when memories are implanted in our minds based on leading questions, comments, or suggestions by someone else or some other source
84
What are false memories?
Memories for events that never happened
85
What is a recovered memory?
One that was encoded and stored, though not retrieved for a long period of time
86
Sensory information travels to the __, which then relays the information to the __
Thalamus; cerebral cortex
87
```
Vision --> __ lobe
Hearing --> __ lobe
Touch --> __ lobe
Taste --> __ lobe
Smell --> __lobe
```
```
Occipital;
Temporal;
Parietal;
Frontal/temporal;
Olfactory
```
88
The encoding stage of memory formation activates the __ as well as the __
Prefrontal cortex; hippocampus
89
The __ directs attention, the __ is involved in encoding episodes and consolidation
Prefrontal cortex; hippocampus
90
__ gives emotional significance to events, especially fearful events
Amygdala
91
__ enhances memory; __ damage blocks enhanced memory for emotional details
Emotion; amygdala
92
What is anterograde amnesia?
The inability to remember events and experiences that occur AFTER an injury or the onset of a disease
93
What is retrograde amnesia?
Inability to recall information BEFORE the onset of disease or injury
94
Alzheimer's disease; loss of __
Acetylcholine
95
Strengthening of a synaptic connection that results when synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires and excites another neuron is known as __
Long-term potentiation
96
When we actively try to recall information, especially words, from long-term memory, we use the
a. occipital cortex
b. prefrontal cortex
c. parietal cortex
d. parahippocampal gyrus
b. prefrontal cortex
97
Complete this phrase; Neurons that __ together __ together
a. grow;slow
b. lie;die
c. synapse; degrade
d. fire;wire
d. fire; wire
98
Both timing and __ of neural firing are crucial in making a memory permanent
a. frequency
b. intensity
c. location
d. distance
a. frequency
99
CREB is a(n) __ that switches on genes responsible for the development of new synapses
a. amino acid
b. protein
c. neurotransmitter
d. enzyme
b. protein
100
__ is the inability to remember events and experiences that occur AFTER an injury or the onset of a disease
a. anterograde amnesia
b. retrograde amnesia
c. post-traumatic amnesia
d. selective amnesia
a. anterograde amnesia
101
Memory enhancers __ and __, most widely prescribed drugs for Alzheimer's disease, target Acetylcholine
Donepezil; Galantamine
102
__ is a chronic memory disorder caused by severe deficiency of thiamine. It is most commonly caused by alcohol misuse
Korsakoff syndrome
103
__ is defined as enduring changes in behavior that occur with experience
Learning
104
The automatic shift of attention toward a new stimulus is known as the __
Orienting response
105
A phenomenon called __, is a sensory process by which individuals adapt to constant stimulation
Habituation
106
A(n) __ occurs when one piece of information from the environment is linked repeatedly with another and the individual begins to connect the two sources of information
Association
| i.e. Cat hears opening sound of drawer, cat comes looking for food
107
What is conditioning?
A form of associative learning in which behaviors are triggered by associations with events in the environment
i.e. Cat is CONDITIONED to the sound of the drawer opening because he has come to associate the sound with food
108
What is classical conditioning? (Pavlov)
A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus to which one has an automatic, inborn response
109
What is the unconditioned response (UR)?
The automatic, inborn reaction to a stimulus
| i.e. Pavlov's case, salivation is the UR
110
What is the unconditioned stimulus (US)?
The stimulus that always produces the same unlearned response
i.e. Pavlov's case, meat powder is the US
111
What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A previously neutral stimulus that an individual learns to associate with the US
i.e. Pavlov's case, the ring of the bell is the CS
112
What is the conditioned response (CR)?
A behavior that an individual learns to perform when presented with the CS
113
__ is when the neutral stimulus is being presented just before the US
Forward conditioning
114
__ is when the neutral stimulus follows the US (less successful)
Backward conditioning
115
What is stimulus generalization?
Extension of the association between US and CS to include a broad array of similar stimuli
i.e. Cat is conditioned to come running when hearing the kitchen drawer opening, but does the same thing when hearing something similar (such as a cabinet opening)
116
What is stimulus discrimination?
Restriction of a CR (such as salivation) to the exact CS to which it was conditioned
i.e. If Pavlov's dogs did not salivate to a buzzer but only to a bell, they would discriminate the conditioned stimulus (bell) from other stimuli (buzzers, clicks, etc.)
117
What is extinction?
Disappearance of CR, when CS and US are no longer paired
118
What is spontaneous recovery?
The sudden reappearance of an extinguished response
119
What is higher-order conditioning?
A form of conditioning whereby a neutral stimulus is paired with a CS
i.e. advertisers show products such as beer with other conditioned stimuli such as the Canadian flag in hopes that their products can trigger the same positive emotions
120
The consequences of a behavior increase or decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated is known as __
Law of effect
121
What is operant conditioning? (Skinner)
Learning based upon the consequences of behavior
| i.e. if a cafe gives you free wireless access, you might come back
122
Classical conditioning involves __ behavior, while operant conditioning works when __ behavior is made more likely by its consequences
Involuntary; voluntary
123
What is a reinforcer?
An internal or external event that increases the frequency of a behavior
124
What are primary reinforcers?
Innate, unlearned reinforcers that satisfy biological needs i.e. food, water, sex
125
What are secondary (or conditioned) reinforcers?
Reinforcers that are learned by association, usually via classical conditioning i.e. money, grades
126
The presentation or addition of a stimulus after a behavior occurs that increases how often that behavior will occur is known as __
Positive reinforcement
i.e. You exercise a few times and feel better
Result: You exercise more often
127
Removal of a stimulus after a behavior to increase the frequency of that behavior is known as __
Negative reinforcement
i.e. You buckle your seat belt and the annoying buzzer sound is removed
Result: you continue using your seat belt
128
What is positive punishment?
The addition of a stimulus that decreases behavior
i.e. You park in the faculty parking lot. You then receive a fine
Result: You stop parking in the faculty lot
129
What is negative punishment?
The removal of a stimulus to decrease behavior
i.e. You talk back to your mom. She takes away TV for a week
Result: You stop talking back to your mom
130
What is shaping?
The reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior
131
What is continuous reinforcement?
Reinforcement of a behavior every time it occurs
132
What is intermittent reinforcement?
Reinforcement of a behavior - but not after every response
133
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses is known as __
Fixed ratio (FR)
- response-based
i. e. Rat gets a pellet after pulling the lever 25 times. Regardless of the time it takes, if he pulls the lever 200 times, he will have gotten 8 pellets
134
The number of responses needed for reinforcement varies is known as __
Variable ratio (VR)
- response-based
i. e. Random; Rat will get a pellet for pulling the lever after 3 times, then after pulling it 207 times, etc. Based on pulling the lever, not based on time (think gambling & slot machines
135
Reinforcement in which responses are always reinforced after a set period of time has passed is known as __
Fixed interval (FI)
- time-based
i. e. Rat can pull on the lever as much as it wants, but it is only given a pellet every 10 minutes. Length of time never changes.
136
Responses are reinforced after time periods of different duration have passed is known as __
Variable interval (VI)
- time-based
i. e. Rat is given a pellet at random times, regardless of the number of times it pulls the lever. For example, he may receive one after 10 minutes, then an hour, etc.
137
__ occurs in the absence of reinforcement
Latent learning
| i.e. Exposed rats to a maze; some reinforced with food right away, others only after several non-reinforced trials
138
Learned behavior that shifts towards instinctive, unlearned behavior tendencies is known as __
Instinctive drift
139
The rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver very soon after birth is known as __
Imprinting
140
A __ is a period when a particular type of learning occurs very readily if an animal is exposed to a particular stimulus or situation
Sensitivity period
141
__ is the learned avoidance of a particular taste or food
Conditioned taste aversion
142
Learning by doing is known as __
Enactive learning
143
Learning by watching the behavior of others is known as __
Observational learning
144
The imitation of behaviors performed by others is known as __
Modelling
145
One region of the brain that has a unique role in reward-seeking behavior is the __
Nucleus accumbens
| - small forebrain region with connections to the amygdala and motor systems
146
__ is active during conditioned fear
Amygdala
147
In the animal lesioning studies, damage in the __ prevents CR to fearful stimuli. Also involved in CR to positive stimuli
Amygdala
148
__ promote forgetting
Endocannabinoids
149
The neurotransmitter dopamine acting on neurons in the nucleus accumbens is important in
a. making associations between CSs and aversive USs
b. -
c. controlling how hard an animal will work for a positive reinforcer
c. controlling how hard an animal will work for a positive reinforcer
150
A treatment for addiction that involves a less harmful form of the drug to avoid withdrawal is known as __
Drug replacement therapy
151
The application of operant conditioning principles to change behavior is known as __
Behavior modification
152
The acquisition phase of addiction is dependent upon which learning process?
a. withdrawal
b. relapse
c. positive reinforcement
d. negative reinforcement
c. positive reinforcement
153
A heroin user regularly injects the drug in his bathroom at home. As a result, going to the bathroom at home now triggers a craving for heroin. In this situation, the bathroom has become a
a. US
b. CS
c. UR
d. CR
b. CS
154
Drug use for which personality type is motivated by positive reinforcement?
a. anxiety sensitive
b. hopeless
c. sensation seeking
d. impulsive
c. sensation seeking
155
If I asked you if the word "FORCE" rhymes with the word "COURSE," to make this distinction you would have to use a method of processing called __________ encoding.
Phonological
156
__________ occurs when retrieval of a previously encoded memory is actively inhibited.
Repression
157
Using a puff of air as the US, Enid classically conditions her dog to blink whenever she says "blink". Her parrot overhears the procedure and says "blink" all day long when Enid is out. When she returns, Enid says "blink" to her dog, but he does not blink. It appears as though:
Extinction has taken place
158
John developed an extreme fear of dogs after receiving a painful bite as a child. Assuming that this dog phobia occurred via classical conditioning, the US in this situation would be
a. all dogs
b. pain from the bite
c. fear of pain from the bite
d. the dog that bit him
e. fear of pain from the dog
b. pain from the bite
159
In one study, discussed in class, Mariscano et al. (2002) exposed control mice and transgenic CB1 knockout mice to a conditioned fear test using a tone paired with a shock. Compared to control mice, CB1 knockouts:
showed higher freezing during extinction trials
160
For every 10 cars Gus sells, he gets a bonus. Gus's sales are being reinforced according to a ____ schedule.
Fixed ratio
161
What is the highest frequency the average 18-year-old can hear?
16 MegaHertz (16,000 Hz)
162
What is the highest frequency the average 50-year-old can hear?
11 MegaHertz (11,000 Hz)
163
What sense(s) have chemoreceptors?
Taste and smell
164
There are a million different olfactory neuron receptors that help us identify approximately _______ different smells.
10,000
165
_________ cells are extremely dynamic cells involved with the sensation of taste and replace the _______ cells every week.
Basal; gustatory
166
What is the purpose of a figure caption?
To summarize what is shown in the figure
167
LSD is classified as a __________ and exerts its effects by binding to ________ receptors.
Hallucinogen; serotonin
168
Alcohol consumption results in a depression of the nervous system by acting to increase the effects of __________ and decrease the effects of __________.
GABA; glutamate
169
The physical and psychological effects of ecstasy are primarily a result of the drug's influence on which neurotransmitter?
Serotonin
170
Heroin exerts its effects by binding to ________ receptors, which in turn, leads to an increase in _________ in the synapse.
Opioid; dopamine
171
Although cocaine and ecstasy act on different neurotransmitter systems in the brain, they are both classified as ___________.
Stimulants
172
Cocaine acts in a unique way by blocking the transporters that bring dopamine back inside the presynaptic neuron. This action would result in:
An increase in dopamine in the synaptic cleft
