Midterm 2 Flashcards
1
Q
how can goal contagion happen?
A
- associating someone with a goal
- being inspired from other’s achieving their goal
- resisting someone controlling us
2
Q
following our impulse for short term immediate gratification can be adaptive in what cases?
A
o Only live for today
o If we’re selfish
o Lack of long term goals
o Lack of interpersonal goals
3
Q
definition of self control
A
Manage choice dilemma between small immediate reward and long term goal
4
Q
takeaway from the Marshmallow study
A
self control correlated with: future educational archievement & body mass index
5
Q
explain the 2 techniques mentionned to help have self control: attentional focus and representation of the temptation?
A
- attentional focus: focus on the shape of marshallow instead of taste
- representation of the temptation: see marshallow as a cotton ball (hot vs cool perspective)
6
Q
impulse & self control: which is reflective vs reflexive?
A
impulse are reflexive (automatic)
self control is reflective (have to think about it)
7
Q
definition of desire
A
affectively charged motivation toward a specific object or person or activity associated with pleasure or relief from displeasure
8
Q
explain the expectancy value theory
A
consider:
- need (ex hunger) & incentive value of the temptation (food)
- probability of motive satisfaction: successfully executing the task (buying cake), and will the task satisfy the need (cake will satisfy hunger)
9
Q
if the desired object is immediatelyavailable, and processing resources are ____, it’s more tempting to follow your impulse
A
processing resources are LOW
10
Q
how can processing resources be low in the context of self-control (less inhibition of temptation) (6)
A
Having just engaged in self regulation (you can only have so much self regulation).
Cognitively busy.
Death thoughts.
Alcohol.
Working memory capacity.
Self affirmation.
11
Q
why does self affirmations lower processing resources?
A
they make you think you deserve the temptation
12
Q
what kind of interactions may take up more mental energy and reduce your capacity to self regulate?
A
- inter-racial interactions
- other person not mimicking
- efforts to empathize with someone not responsive
13
Q
what happens if you try to suppress thoughts about the temptation?
A
- Ruminate about desires.
- Generate more thoughts supporting and justifying indulgence.
- Suppression rebound effects.
14
Q
Epsilon-cost temptation
A
seeing the indulgence as a small isolated thing makes you less likely to see it as a self control conflict and therefore more likely to indulge
15
Q
what happened when they put healthy and unhealthy snacks together vs separate?
A
more likely to indulge in unhealthy snacks when they are with the healthy snacks because it doesn’t seem like you need to chooose one
16
Q
strategies to help resolve a self-control conflict
A
- Distance from temptation
– Precommitment (buy fruit)
– Devalue temptation (cotton ball)
– Temptations abstract and cool and goal concrete and hot
17
Q
give 4 proactive self-control strategies (to use before the temptation occurs)
A
- select a less tempting situation
- modify the situation to make it less tempting
- appraise the temptation as less tempting
- willful resistance in the moment
18
Q
what is the restraint illusion?
A
in “cold” states, we underestimate the influence of hot, implusvie states (when the temptation is far away, you don’t think youll be too tempted)
19
Q
how did they test the restraint illusion?
A
let people choose a snack. if they come back in a week with the snack, they get the snack + 10$ cash.
20
Q
what was the results of the snack study on restraint illusion?
A
- hungry people realise how hard it might be not to eat the snack, so they choose a snack they dont like that much: had 60% success rate
- satiated people choose their favorite snack cus they didn’t think it would be that hard -> 39% success
21
Q
when does violence happen more often?
A
late at night when people are tired, when it’s hot outside
22
Q
what’s the study on violence and self control?
A
-1: resist eating donut vs radish (donut takes a lot of self control)
- 2: receive insulting evaluation
- 3: decide how much hot sauce to give confederate when he hates spicy food
23
Q
what were the finding of the violence / self control study?? (donut and hot sauce)
A
- resisting the donut = self-regulating resources are low = confederate gives more hot sauce (increased aggressive behavior)
24
Q
what does the Safe Dates Physical Violence Scale measure?
A
measures how frequently you initiated 16 violent behaviors during an argument
25
what did they find out using the Safe Dates Physical Violence Scale?
- low trait self control OR low relationship commitment = more intimate partner violence
- giving people more time to answer made them less likely to say they have intimate partner violence
26
Mortality is threatening. according to terror management theory, how do you still feel good about your place in the world?
By embracing and associating with your culture.
27
having a cultural world view adds what to our life?
order, meaning, permanence
28
what are the spiritual vs secular ways of transcending death?
- Spiritual (soul, heaven)
- Secular: offspring, achievements, identification with collective
29
what is the provocative implication of the terror management theory?
that culture and self esteem's reason to exist is to buffer death-related anxiety
30
explain the study with making mortality salient for judges, what results did they get and why?
- judges for whom mortality was made salient sent a higher bond to a hooker.
- Judges reminded of their mortality set higher bond due to threat to cultural world view.
31
explain the study about making death salient end setting a reward for someone who calls the police on a violent dude
students participating set the bond 3x higher after mortality is made salient
32
how is mortality made salient in these studies? 2 ways
1: describe emotions that arise when you think about your own death
2: note down what you
think will happen to you as you physically die
33
what did the study of mortality salience asking christians to rate other christians vs jews show?
Mortality salience increases your good impression of someone like you but decreases your good impression of someone in a different group than you
34
what are the 2 ways in which death thoughts accessibility DTA is managed?
- proximal way: conscious, rational, distractions, convincing ourselves that were healthy,
- distal way: unconscious, association with culture & self-esteem
35
what did the white bear experiment show?
rebound effect that comes with trying to suppress thoughts / distract or cognitive load
36
the white bear experiment is what type of prime?
conscious prime
37
what is the problem with making death salient experiment?
you need a delay to bypass the proximal defense on pushing down thought about death
38
how can you bypass the problem of the rebound effect about thoughts of death?
subliminal priming! showing words related to death quickly unconsciously
39
more specifically how does unconscious, subliminal priming resolve the problem of rebound effect with death thoughts?
By bypassing proximal defenses because subject is not aware defenses needed.
Not refuting or putting a positive spin on mortality salience. Gets directly to distal defenses.
40
after the subliminal prime, how did they evaluate terror management theory?
they made participants rate a pro-US vs anti-US essays, and participants who were primed with death preferred the pro-US essaye a LOT
41
what's another way (except showing words about death quickly) that they did subliminal priming of death?
stopped people before, in front or, and after a funeral home
42
what did they find with the funeral home study?
people who were questionned in front of a funeral home overestimated how many people shared their view on immigration and christianity
43
flip terror managment theory around: what if the cultural world view is threatened, what happens to death thoughts?
death thoughts become more accessible!
44
what was the canucks study about?
made canadians read a anti-canada website and then measured their death thoughts by showing word fragments that good be normal word or death words, and seeing if they guess the normal or death word.
They guessed the death word
45
what is the elaboration likelihood model ELM?
model of persuasion that maintains there are two routes to persuasion
46
what are the 2 routes to persuasion? briefly describe
- central route: people think deliberately about the message
- peripheral route: using superficial cues
47
in what cases do you use central route to persuasion?
- issue is personally relevant to the audience
- person is knowledgeable in the domain
48
in what cases do you use peripheralroute to persuasion?
- issue is not personlly relevant
- person is distracted or tired
- message is incomplete or hard-to-comprehend
49
what are characteristics of peripheral route arguments?
- long and many
- source attractivenes/fame/expertise
- consensus
50
peripheral route to persuasion might affect what in someone?
change someone's emotional reaction
51
what were the findings of the study on student's attitude towards a comprehensive exam?
student for who the exam policy was personally relevant were motivated by strong arguments.
students for who is was not personally relevant were motivated by the expertise of the source.
52
in persuasion, what characteristic of an argument could be peripheral and central route?
source expertise
53
what persuasion route has more effective results?
central route leads to more long-lasting attitude changes
54
what are the 3 specific elements of peruasion?
1) who (source of message)
2) what (content)
3) to whom (audience)
55
how can attractiveness of the source influence persuasion?
Via peripheral route: we like attractive people
central route: making people's effortful thinking more favorable
56
what is the sleeper effect
message from unreliable / not credible source exert little influence initially, but over time can switch people's attitudes
57
how does the sleeper effect work?
you unconsciously dissociate the content of the message from the source
58
how does the importance of certainty of the source influence jurys?
jurors show that people judge the credibility of a witness based on the confidence they express
59
what can increase the quality of a persuasion message?
- source argues against its own self-interest
- makes its conclusion / consequences explicit
- refute opposition
- straightforward and clear
- vivid central argument
60
what is the identificable victim effect?
the tendency to be more moved by the vivid plight of a single individual than by the struggle of a more bastract number of people
61
in what cases does the identificable victim effect not work?
when it is possible to blame a victim for the situation
62
how should fear be addressed in persuasion?
right amount of fear with clear information about steps people can make to address the source of fear
63
what can intense fear in persuasion do?
disrupt the central processing of the message, reducing long-lasting change
64
in persuasion, messages that appeal to independence may be more effective among what groups?
individuals from higher socioeconomic backgrounds
65
westerners vs east asians: what kind fo messages persuade each the most?
westerners: gain-framed / positive outcome message
east-asians: loss-framed / avoiding negative outcomes message
66
when it comes to mood, name one way you can increase the audience compliance?
inducing guilt (but like fear, you need to give that solutions for that guilt)
67
what age group is more easily persuaded?
youngs
68
what is shared attention?
when you believe that many other people are attending the same stimulus as you
69
what does shared attention do when it comes to persuasion?
makes you incline to process the stimulus more deeply
70
what is the agenda control?
efforts by the media to emphasize certain events and topics, shaping which issues and events people think are important
71
what is the hostile media phenomenon?
tendency to see media coverage as biased against our own side and in favor of the opponnent
72
name the 3 concepts via which our mind decide to respon selectively to information
- selective attention
- selective evaluation
- selective framing
73
we are selectively more attentive to what info?
information that reinforces our attitude
74
how was selective attention demonstrated?
people heard pro and anti-weed messages but with a static noise that could be removed by pressing a button.
pro-weed pressed the button mostly during pro-weed messages, and opposit for anti-week
75
what are echo-chambers
algorithms that drive people's internet search and keeps us in our own bubble
76
what was suprising about liberals vs conservatives echochambers?
there was an overlap or over 50% between the ideological content of liberals and conservatives
77
explain selective evaluation
people who are personally motivated will be more skeptical of information that challenges cherished beliefs
78
what is the thought polarization hypothesis?
more extended thinking about an issue gives rise to more extreme attitudes
79
what is moral reframing? give an example
changing an argument so it fits the moral values of the person we are trying to convince (ex Gay Americans are patriotic Americans)
80
what is attitude inoculation?
an initial inoculation (small attack to your belief) makes people more resistant to changing their attitude
81
how could we use attitude inoculation to get people not to belive false news?
bad news game: nudging participants to come up with ways of resisting misinformation primes their "immune system" to resist future misinformation
82
3 things that increase resistance to persuasion
- previous commitment
- heavy knowledge
- morals/values
83
what's homophily?
tendency of people to disproportionally associate with peole like them
84
what is conformity?
changing one's beliefs or behavior to more closely align with those of others
85
difference between compliance and obedience?
compliance is responding to a request from someone else who can be equal as you, obedience is from someone with unequal power relationship
86
name positive examples of confromity
suppressing anger, paying taxes, forming lines at the bus
87
why do we mimic others? 2 examples
- brain regions responsible for perception overlap with action
- facilitate smooth, gratifying interactions
88
what does mimicry create?
powerful feelings of closeness and bonding
89
examples of studies looking at mimicry / synchronicity
- participants who tapped in time with the experimenter like him better
- marching at the same time increases connection
90
explain sherif's conformity experiment
participants guessed how far a light move.
They were then influenced by others and changed their guess until everyone's judgment fused into a group norm, who still affected their response 1 year later
91
definition of informational social influence
influence of other people that results from taking their comments/actions as source of information about what is correct
92
when is the informational social influence the strongest?
when people are uncertain about what is correct
93
in study about TMT, what short-term tactic did israelis use to manage terror?
DENIAL about the disengagement plan
94
what happened to israelis who were high in denial of the disengagement plan after being subliminally primed with death?
they endorse violence MORE than control (pain)
95
what happened to israelis who were low in denial of the disengagement plan after being subliminally primed with death?
no change; People who were NOT in denial were already dealing with the reality of getting deported. Mortality salience had no effect.
96
from the gaza/israel deportment study, we can conclude that mortality salience disrupts what?
disrupt fragile beliefs
97
what did 9/11 trigger (in relation to TMT)?
* Increased patriotism
* Search for meaning
* Desire for justice and vengeance
* Increased altruism, esp to ingroup
* Lash out at those symbolically connected to the attackers.
* Ingroup becomes Americans—decreased prejudice towardAfricanAmericans.
* If you threaten my cultural worldview then increase DTA
98
describe the 3 types of leaders we talked about
- Charismatic leader: “you are part of a special state, special nation”
- Task-oriented leader: “I can accomplish the goals I sell out”
- Relationship leader: “I know everyone can make a difference. I worry about citizens wellbeing”
99
after mortality salience, what leader is preferred by thegains popularity? why?
charismtic leader; people wan to feel as part of something bigger
100
why was it harder to cope with the mortality saliencee brought my covid 19?
the chaotic situation really challenged our world view. Couldn't get close to our community to cope.
101
what characteristics in people can protect against the anxiety of death?
o High meaning in life
o Nostalgia, longing for the past
o Interdependence
o Good self-esteem
102
how did they find that women are more interdependent than men (well just an example from the prof)?
women take more pictures with people rather than with objects
103
what happened in the study where people read pro- or anti-afterlife essays?
pro-afterlife essays: they were protected from the stress induced by mortality salience after reading the essays
104
what happened when people who read pro- vs anti-afterlife essays were presented with self-esteem boosting feedback?
people who read anti-anfterlife: increase accepted of the feedback.
pro-afterlife essay: no increased acceptance (they don't need it).
105
what happened when participants affirmed their religious beliefs before mortality salience?
protected against anxiety & decrease death thought accessibility
106
what's different between people who went through post-traumatic growth vs other people who havent?
- PTG: they endorse more intrinsic goals (Build closer relationships, Make the world better, Build meaningful lasting resources)
- others: extrinsic goals (Physical attractiveness, wealth, materialism)
107
what happens when people are presented to an innocent victim?
they assume negative trait for the victim to try and rationalize why she deserved to die. (Belief of just world)
108
what is the belief of just world?
we implicitely believe that people get what they deserve
109
how do the TMT psychologist manage to live with that knowledge?
they do drugs
110
what did they find when studying participants who were told to think about death for long periods of time over 6 days?
different effect than mortality salience. shows that mortality salience studies don't necessarely tell us about what happens when people are actually confronted to death.
111
name one problem about TMT
Difficult to decide whether a particular world view defense fits for you?
112
What underlies the effect of mortality salience? according to prof
fear of dying ALONE.
total severing of social connections
113
what is the social distance measure?
scale mesuring your racism (how close in your life you would let a POC be) (from visitor in my country to spouse)
114
the problem with explicit racism scores such as the social distance scores, is that we dont know if it actually measures recism or ..?
Or people's desire not to act racist
115
what is the implicit association test?
type left for bad word, right for good. then type left for black, and right for white or vice versa -> measure reaction time
116
explain the priming prejudice study
If you have neg attitudes towards black people, you will you identify negative words as negative faster - after being primed with a black face, than if you aren’t primed or primed with a white face.
White face prime has no effect.
117
participant's Rodney king verdict and attitude towards a black participant could be predicted by what measured of racism?
rodney king verdict: explicit measure (modern racism scale)
attitude towards black: implicit, automatic attitude measure
118
what kind of people will have strong correlation between implicit and explicit racist measures?
poeple who are openly racist
119
what is the affective misattribution paradigm?
way to mesure attitude about something: show a first slide that is a distractor, ask participants not to care about it, show a 2nd slide and ask them to rate it
120
what did using the bogus pipeline to measure people's level of racism show?
being more thruthful = more racist; when they think people can see if they lie or no, people show more prejudice
121
in what conditions do explicit self report of racism correlation with pain's affective misattribution paradigm measure?
when people are tied to a bogus pipeline while answering the explicit self report (still only 0.49 correlation, wtv)
122
name the 3 implicit measures of racism and their characteristics
- IAT implicit association test: but not sure what it actually measures, because it is based on reaction time
- sequantial priming: not the most reliable
- AMP affective misattribution paradigm: better because it measures attitude + reaction time
123
What do people think IAT implicit association test actually mesures?
what is cognitively accessible at this moment in time! (bias to stimulus youve experienced today)
124
Bias in a community measured by IAT scores in 2004-2017 correlates with the proportion of what? what does this tell us?
of county and state slavery in 1860; racism gets past on through history
125
Additionally, Payne found that school's IAT scores (implicit association test) correlated with what 3 measures?
1. lack of faculty diversity
2. likeliness of having a confederate monument
3. lack of income mobility
126
2 more things found by Hehman that correlate with communitie's IAT bias?
number of cardiovascular deaths in black men & police shootings
127
4 methods to prejudice reduction
1. cooperative learning
2. peer influence (publicly expressed opinions)
3. contact (equal status, shared goal, community support)
4. entertainement
128
explain the study about using entertainment to change people's prejudices in Rwanda
put a script about bringing people together in radio soap operas in Rwanda lead people to change opinions on social norms like intermarriage, trust and empathy.
BUT no change in personal beliefs or attitudes
129
in the study asking students to write down how they would interact with an indigenous person after being prompted with different subject, how did they react after being prompted with anti-racism?
- low prejudice people had decreased warmth and responsivity
130
why would low prejudice people have decreased warmth with indigenous person after being prompted with anti-racism?
cus it stressed low prejudice people out to think about racism = worst interaction with the indigenous person
131
how did low prejudice vs high prejudice react after being prompted with multiculturalism?
low prejudice: increased warmth and amical
high prejudice: decreased warmth
132
how did low prejudice vs high prejudice react after being prompted with colorblindness (look behind skin color)?
didn't help either low or high prejudice people to be more warm
133
what is dehumanization?
deeper than prejudice: you don't value the person as human, therefore you fell like you don't have to treat them as one
134
what did the degraded picture study give as results?
dehumanization: when primed with black faces, people recognized ape image sooner (they don't see black people as humans, they see them as apes)
135
why did they repeat the degraded image study with lions and tigers?
to make sure that the association wasn't due to people seeing black people as dangerous predator, like an ape
136
what is the dot-probe vigilance taks?
2 dots appear on the screen and you must press a key as soon as you notice the dots, depending on what side they are.
137
what did they measure using the dot-probe vigilance task?
you are faster to notice the dots when they are on the same side as a black face because seeing a black face makes you MORE VIGILANT
138
how did they test if dehumanization predicts behavior?
primed with ape or tiger, showed a clip of a beating by police, participants are lead to beleive the suspect is either white or black.
Then, participant must say if the guy deserved the beating.
139
what results did they find in the dehumanization / behavior prediction study?
o if you are lead to believe that the person is white: prime makes no difference if your opinion on the beating
o if you are lead to believe that the person is black: ape prime = you think that the beating is MORE justified
140
what did the super explicit measure of dehumanization show?
people actually rate Asians, Mexican, Arabs, Muslims as LESS evolved compared to whites (Europeans/north Americans) on the scale of ape to homosapien
141
how did dehumanization show in the study with the story about 2 kids shoplifting?
people felt less guilty, angry and less compassion for the arab kid who got taken to the police if they saw arabs as less evolved
142
what was the pornography study?
male participant got primed or not with pornography and were evaluated in how they treated a woman confederate.
143
in the study priming men to view women as sexual object, how did they assess the likelihood to sexually harass?
1. men read 10 scenarios and give their opinion (ex offer job to candidate in exchange for sex). (People who associate power with sex or attraction have higher likelihood to sexually harass)
2. Men are brought in for an “instructor study” where they were randomly chosen to teach a woman to play poker or hit a golf ball. Then the woman rated how much the guy touched her (how much did the guy exploit the situation to touch the woman).
144
what lexical decision task was used after priming with sexist adds?
measure response-time to word or non-word:
- Sexist words (babe, bimbo, playboy) or non-sexist word (mother, sister nurturer)
145
what were the results of the sexist/non-sexist lexical decision task?
getting primed with sexist add increases the rapidity to recognize sexist word
146
what did they found in men with high vs low likeliness to sexually harass and sexist add prime?
they all had increased sexist behavior after getting primed with sexist add, but men with low LSH had less initial sexist behavior
147
with this sexist study, conclusion is that ...
Likeliness of sexual harassment is chronically available. There are INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES that men carry with them
148
how were sexist behaviors measured?
o Proximity (chair)
o Sexualized behavior when teaching golf
o Memory about appearance after interview
o Memory about qualifications after interview
o Rating of competence of the confederate in interview
o Rating of friendliness and attractiveness of confederate
o Rating of hireability
- also sexual staring
149
what sexist behavior was the only one who wasn't increased after priming with sexist adds?
hireability! it was actually increased by the prime
150
how did the sexist adds prime affect women vs men's body image?
women saw themselves as bigger after the add; men saw themselves as smaller
151
what is the definition of self-objectification
Whenever people’s bodies, body parts, or sexual functions are separated out from their identity and reduced to the status of mere instruments or regarded as capable of representing them
152
how did they measure self-objectification?
asked participants to rate importance of characteristics:
- high objectification = physical appearance, measurements, weight, firm muscles, sex appeal
- low = fitness, coordination, health, strength
153
in the bodyshame study, the combination of high self-objectification + wearing a swimsuit produced what results?
highest bodyshame
154
who ate in a "symbolically restrained" way after reieving a cookie?
women who experienced high bodyshame
155
did women who experience low body shame from the experience eat the cookie?
Yes. they either ate in a fully restrained or non-restrained way
156
when asked to fill out a math test in a sweather vs smiwsuit, what happened to men vs women?
Men: nothing
Women: wearing a swimsuit reduced their score compared to wearing a sweather
157
what is stereotype threat?
knowledge of a prevalent cultural stereotype about performance interferes with performance through fear of confirming the stereotype
158
what about black vs white student SAT and GPA score?
- Black student’s SAT score did NOT predict their GPA
- But it did for white students
159
what happened to balck vs white students performing a test, depending if they were told that it was a diagnostic of their intelligence?
if they were told that the test WAS a diagnostic, black students performed way worst
160
why do black men do worst on a test when they think its a diagnostic of their intelligence?
because they are scared of representing the stereotype that black students are worst at school. It brings to mind their IMPOSTOR SYNDROME
161
to happened to men vs women who were super good at math when they were given a test that started with with very hard questions? what is the phenomenon behind that?
they both did way worst than if they had easy questions first, but women did worst than men. this is due to stereotype threat
162
how did being in a minority/majority affect women and men's score on a math test?
women performed worst in the moniroty, but best in the majority.
no effect on men
163
what is the logic behind stereotype threat making us perform worst on tests?
physiological stress response, active monitoring of own performance, and suppression of negative thoughts about this: This DRAINS executive resources needed to perform well on task
164
why doesnt stereotype threat increase motivation and therefore performance?
it increase motivation, but the also triggers insecurity and stress responses, making it even harder to overcome the stereotype
165
what happened when people had to affirm their gender before vs after a test?
women performed worst when affirming their gender before a test
166
how can stereotype threat be alleviated?
- Having role models of your group: Less pressure on you to represent your whole group
- self-affirmations
167
who has the most impaired performance (when talking about stereotype threat)?
those most concerned with succeeding in the domain experience greater threat and impaired performance
168
what is modern racism?
prejudice directed at racial groups that exist alongside the rejection of explicitely racist beliefs
169
example of modern racism when helping someone on the street
if there were other people around to help, white people would help another white person 2x more than a black person
170
how does modern racism increase the mental load of minorities?
they have to use cognitive resources to discern the intentions of others (are they treating me like that because of my race?)
171
what is benevolent/ambivalent sexism
when negative stereotypes accompany positive ones (im not sexist, i love women)
172
what is the implicit association test
technique for revealing nonconscious attitude toward different stimuli, particularly groups of people (press a key; you will be faster if things you associate together are on the same key - ex old person anad negative word)
173
data from the IAT show what? (textbook)
- young and old people have pronounced prejudice in favor of young people
- half black people show pro-white prejudice
174
why is IAT criticized?
not sure what it measures...
175
how was priming first used to measure prejudice?
prime with a face, see how quick people are at recognizing positive or negative words
176
what is affect misattribution procedure?
measures how people evaluate a stimulus after a given prime instead of how quickly they respond to it
177
explain the 3 perspectives that explain inter-group hostility
- economic perspective: competing interests
- motivational perspective: psychological needs
- cognitive perspective: cognitive processes that enable people to categorize things
178
what is realistic group conflict theory?
groups develop prejudices when they compete for limited material resources
179
what is ethnocentrism
glorifying one's own group while vilifying other groups
180
according to realistic group conflict theory, what groups will have the most prejudice?
groups who stand to loose the most from another group's economic advance
181
what is the robbers cave experiment?
2 groups of boys in a camp, they have a tournament and quickly express intergroup hostlity, until they had a shared goal
182
whats a superordinate goal?
goal that transcends the interests of any one group and can be archieved more readily by working together
183
did putting the 2 groups of robbers cave experiment together in noncompetitive settings ease the tensions?
no
184
3 lessons from the robbers cave experiment
1. no need for difference between groups to have conflict, or even competition. just 2 groups.
2. competition increase group cohesion
3. diminishing intergroup conflict is possible is they work on common goal
185
whats minimal group paradigm?
researchers create groups based on meaningless criteria and examine how the members of these groups behave towards each other
186
in the minimal group paradigm experiment, participants are interested in maxomizing ..?
the relative gain for members of their ingroup over the outgroup, even if that means less money
187
what is social identity theory?
part of a person's self-concept and esteem derives from the status and accompishments of the various groups to which the person belongs
188
when are people most likely to identify strongle with their group?
when they feel uncertain anout their own attitudes, values, feelings, and place in the world
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what is basking in reflected glory?
taking pride of other people's accomplishments in our group (we won the tournament! instead the the team)
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explain the study on denigrating outgroups due to a hit in self esteem, and the effect on self-esteem
- people get a hit in self-esteem
- rate job candidates
- they rated jewish people as worst than the control did
- they had a big increase in self-esteem that came with it!
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what happened when people were asked to recognize health vs black words after being praised or criticized by a white or black doctor?
- praised by black doctor = recognize health words quicker
- criticized by black doctor = recognized black words quicker
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why do we categorize things?
simplifies taking in and processing all the stimuli surrounding us
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the cognitive perspective states that we are more likely to stereotype when?
we're tired, intoxicated, have cognitive load
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when shown a video of hannah, and told she was from upper-middle-class vs working class, what did people predict?
- upper class = she performed better on school
- working-class = she's not good at school
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what is illusory correlation?
when we attend more closely to distinctive events, so we're likely to remember them better
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what is paired distinctiveness?
pairing of 2 distinctive events that stand out more because they occur together (minorities as well as negative behavior are distinctive)
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what is self-fulfiiling prophecies?
people act towards members of a group in ways that encourage the behavior they expect to see from them, reinforcing the stereotype
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describe the experiment on self fulfilling prophecies and job interview
fund that black applicant were treated differently, and therefore were less likely to be selected for the job
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what is subtyping?
explaining away exceptions to a stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that differs from the rest of the group
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subtyping shows that people don't easily let go of _____ even when ...?
stereotypes, even when proven the opposit
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people tend to describe the positvie vs negative actions of their own group vs other groups in what different ways?
own group negative actions and other group positive actions as more concrete, so the individual is less implicated in the action.
own group positive and other group negative actions as more abstract, so individual is MORE implicated.
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the pure act of categorizing distorts what?
judgment
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we tend to assume what about ingroup vs outgroup members personalities?
Ingroups are not individual and diverse, outgroups are all the same
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what's own race identification bias?
tendency for people to be better able to recognize and distinguish faces from their own races
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neuroscience found that our reactions to different groups of people are guided by ___ and ______ mental processes
quick and automatic
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what did they find when participants were asked to shoot, in a video game, a player when it appeared on screen with a weapon?
they were more likely to mistake a tool for a wepaon when the player was black than white
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studie showed that social norms communicated via social media can be effectvie but ..
only if it comes from a high-status ingroup member, and the effects may be temporary
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what is contact hypothesis?
proposition that prejudice can be reduced by putting members of different groups in frequent contact
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is contact hypothesis true?
no... only works if the groups have equal status, have a shared goal, and the community supports intergroup contact
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definition of multiculturalism
diversity ideology that encourages the acknoledgment and appreciation of people's unique culture
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what is the opposit of multiculturalism?
color-blindness
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people primed with color-blindness are less able to detect what?
racial discrimination
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multiculturalism also has downfallsm. explain
it can increase race essentialism, or the belief that racial-group differences are biologically based and immutable
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what can be bad about diversity trainings?
members of underrepresented groups may be prompted to doubt their own competence
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what is social dominance theory?
theory about the hierarchical nature of societies and how they remain stable
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social dominance theory states that hierarchies are often based on what?
age, gender, arbitrary set (ethnicity, religion, race)
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3 things that keep hierarchies in place? describe them quickly
- individual discrimination (dominant group -> subordinate groups)
- institutional discrimination (laws and norms)
- behavioral asymmetries (self-fulfilling prophecies)
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what is social dominance orientation
people are willin to express prejudiced atiitudes toward different groups and are more inclined to endorse policies that preserve existing hierarchies
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what are legitimizing myths?
myths that make unequal treatment seem not only perfectly resonable but highly desirable
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what kind of streotypes govern who is and isnt thought to be deserving?
stereotypes of who is and isnt productive or virtuous
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whats meritocracy?
some people merit more than others do
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meritocracy fails to acknowledge what?
the role of luck in everyone's life and the difference in opportunities
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what is just world hypothesis?
belief that everyone in life get what they deserve and deserve what they get
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beliefs in meritocracy, in a just world, and in pronounced mobility make it easier to accept what?
inequalities
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whats the opposite of dehumanizing?
anthropomorphism (attribution of human traits, feelings, and intentions to nonhuman entities)
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what can foster brutal dehumanization?
strong feelings of ingroup loyalty
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when are we more likely to dehumanize?
when we see the world as chaotic and threatening
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name 3 legitimizing myths
- belief in meritocracy
- belief in a just world
- pronounced mobility
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what is the stereotype content model?
describes the nature of common group stereotypes, positing that they vary along the two prominent dimensions of warmth and competence
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people high in competence and low in warmth tend to be _____.
people low in competence but high in warmth tend to be _____.
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when women act in a way that signal competence, they risk being seen as insufficiently what?
warm
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explain the bias in law enforcement
blakc people and disproportionally stopped by policed, incarcerated and killed by police, compared to the % they make of the population
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explain the bias in what is absent or witheld
members of marginalized groups often find that the world does not pay as much attention to them
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what individuals seems to be relatively invisible?
people with multiple nondominant identities
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in a study where people were asked to looked at pictures, and then identify the ones they had already seen, who was the least recognized?
black women (double minority)
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what are systemic inequities?
historical or contemporary laws, policies, practices and norms that advantage some groups in soceity and disadvantage others
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example of systemic inequality and temperature
its hotter in poorer black neighborhood of portland because there is less money for parc and green
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systemic inequalities when is comes to punishing crimes
white collar crimes tend to be committed by members of the dominant groups in society and are much less severely punished than crimes by marginalized people
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how does being largely absent from the broader culture affect marginalized groups (ex native americans)?
they feel like they don't belong in school because they dont have role models
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when can invisibility can be a blessing for intersectional people?
there can be less resistance to their acting in ways that depart from the stereotypes of those groups.
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what study looked at intersetcional people and how they are percieved?
study on black/white female/male leaders acting dominant or communal.
Black female leaders, unlike white female, were seen as effective if they acted dominant or communal, while white female were disadvanaged for being dominant.
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what did changing "master" to "head" as a leadership role in academic do?
lowered % of people who thought of a man when they hear the word master!
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what is attributional ambiguity?
not knowing if you recieved a treatment because you deserve it or because of your race or other characteristic
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what happened when black people were given feedback by someone they thought could vs could not see them?
when they thought the other person could see them, their self esteem was not affected by positive or negative feedback.. cus they thought it was because they were black
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inducing thoughts about gender difference made women perform worst in a test due to what phenomenon?
stereotype threat
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study about gold test described as sports intelligence or atheltic ability test:
black student performed worst if they thought it was a sport intelligence test,
white students if they thought it was an athletic test.
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what is caused by concealment of sexual orientation
- cardiovascular stress
- mentally taxing (increased cognitive load)
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how do white people act to try to be seen as warm when interactng with POC?
they downshift their language, which can be patronizing.
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study about distance of chair in interacial interactions
white people position the chairs farther appart when they thought they were gonna talk to black people about racial profilling vs about love
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what is the hypothesis why african cashiers outperformed white cashiers when there was an unbiased manager?
the grocery chain set a higher bar for hiring non-white cashiers
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people are more open to providing help to other in needs if others are ...
from their own ethnic, racial, and religious groups
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white people are scared of what kind of demographic change?
decrease in white people %, increase in immigration
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people who were told that california had recently become a majority-minority state were more likely to vote what?
republican
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how do members of dominant vs marginalized groups view progress in prejudice and discrimination?
- dominant: where historically marginalized were vs where they are now
- marginalized: where they want to be compared to where they are
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what is the marley hypothesis
the claim that different racial groups make different assessments of the amount of racism in society because they differ in their knowledge of racial history
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people overestimate what when it comes to discrimination?
overestimate the progress towards racial equality
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availability heuristic in terms of discrimination?
we are more attentive to the hardships of life. white are prone to think we are being discriminated against even if it barely happens.
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many of the advantages enjoyed by members of dominants groups are not presence of perks but they are ...
absence of burdens (harder to notice)
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people who don't like being told they got lucky will often gratefully recount time when ...
they have benefited from luck. ask, don't tell! let them tell you
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3 types of justification
- ego justification: maintain favorable self image and feel valid, justified and legitimate as an individual
- group justification: maintain favorable image of my group, defend and justify
- system justification: social and psychological need to justify the system, status quo
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why do people justify the system even if it doesnt favor them?
The status quo is hard to change when you are not favored by it
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how can social change / system change be triggered?
Ego and/or group justification must overcome strength of system justification
263
explain the study about the shocks given to an innocent?
people rated themselves.
Then, saw an innocent "learner" get shocked, and were told that there was a 2nd round of shocks coming, that it was done, or that it was a video from last week.
First option cause most discomfort, so people rate the learner as worst in the first condition to try to justify why she gets shocks.
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give an example of black children justifying the system
they internalize the stereotype and rpefer white dolls over black dolls
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in the french vs english canadian study, what were the results? (match guise test) this is an example of what?
english AND french canadians saw the english canadian as the more favorable person.
System justification
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what did they find when studying bush vs gore supporters around election time? this is an example of what?
- if they manipulated data to make people think the opposit candidate was most likely gonna win, more people endorsed the winning candidate
- more people say they voted for the winning candidate after the election, than people who actually voted for them
- System justification
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what hypothesis is usually linked to system justification?
just world hypothesis
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how do people justify the disadvantaged people?
"they aren’t disadvantages, were just different" (ex poor but happy)
269
give an example of how we see women based on benevolent sexism
Talking about women as warm nurturers relieves them from being seen as competent (WARM VS COMPETENT)
270
explain the priming study about women endorsing status quo
If women were primed with stereotype as women being considerate, honest, warm, moral (WARM), the endorsed the system and status quo.
(things such as "Relations between men and women are fair, division of labor in families operates as it should")
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did priming have an effect on men endorsing status quo?
no ... they always endorse it
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when primed with benevolent sexism, hostile sexism, or control prime, what did women think of the system?
- more system jusrtification with benevolent
- middle justification with hostile (!!)
- less justification with control
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when primed with benevolent sexism, hostile sexism, or control prime, what did men think of the system?
they always endorse
274
men show most romantic interest towards what kind of women?
women who are benevolently sexist (pure, vulnerable and ideal at making men feel complete)
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they found correlational evidence that endorsing benevolent sexism is linked to what in women?
appearance concerns, thin ideal, self-objectification.
Putting goals for themselves to maintain appearance
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name the benevolent sexism prime
- Many women have a quality of purity that few men possess
- Men are incomplete without women
- Women compared to men have a superior moral sensibility
- Women compared to men have a more refined sense of culture and good taste.
277
do women primed with hostile sexism suffer self-objectification?
barely
278
if people can easily move out of their system, do they justify it?
no. people mostly justify the system if they can't escape
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how can you get inoculated to system justification?
by being reminded (almost inucolated) about how good the system is (reading system affirmation quote), you dont feel the need to system justify as much
280
what can uncertainty cause related to system justification?
- can make people rebel
- can make people justify the system MORE to try to find comfort
281
what are we most likely to do when the system faces threat?
defend the system even more
282
what are the foundations of the moral foundations theory
- Moral intuitions derived from innate psychological mechanisms that interact with cultural institutions and practices.
- Innate but modifiable. Cultural expression
- Decrease selfishness, facilitating community and cooperation
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what are the individualization foundation of morality in WEstern world?
1. care (vs harm)
2. justice/fairness
284
what are the binding foundation of morality, mostly in non-western world?
1. Ingroup loyalty
2. Respect authority
3. Preserve purity and sanctity
285
what is moral reasoning?
Height think that morality is automatic, and we try to reason our intuitions after (constructing and explanation for why something seems wrong)
286
what can affect your decision in the trolley problem?
seeing a picture of the person who would die
287
what did height say about liberals vs conservatives? and morality
- liberals endorse individualizing foundaations to the expense of binding foundations
- conservatives endorse both
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suggesting that conservatives consciously endorse binding values to satisfy psychological needs, means that ______
____ could make them not endorse them anymore
cognitive load
289
what happened when cognitive load was put on conservatives vs liebrals?
- conservatives decrease binding values (authority, ingroup loyalty, purity)
- liberals slightly increase support for binding values
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when are binding foundations more likely to be activated?
when we are in state of fear and threat
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what happens when binding foundations are not activated?
individualizing foundations of care and fairness expand
292
what do binding foundations "do"?
limit moral concern, conserve moral resources, and reinforce moral boundaries.
293
why do conservatives have more binding values / foundations??
because they see more threat in the world and system!
294
what's a dyadic process?
when we assume that someone did smtg to make someone else cry - morality, is one person doing harm to another?
295
moral rule applied to a situation depends on what?
the relationship model you have with the person
296
name the moral rules and associated relationship model
unity -> communal sharing
hierarchy -> authority ranking
equality -> equal matching
proportionality -> market pricing
297
what is specific to communal sharing?
it is specific to sharing with your IN-GROUPS
298
example of authority ranking moral decision
in the med tent, a corporal and a lieutenant both need blood but only enough blood for 1 person.
The lieutenant, higher ranked, should get the blood
299
how does being in position of power alters someone’s rule of morality?
- increases own hypocrisy (rate our own transgression as more moral)
- decrease acceptance of other's trangressions
300
explain equality / equal matching in morality
it's about reciprocity: eye for an eye
301
give 3 examples we talked about, about the moral rule of proportionality
- proportional sentence depending how bad a crime was
- sacrificing one to save 5 in trolley problem
- give boring task and see how well they do if theyre paid little or a lot
302
what is moral dumbfunding?
idea that we have fast, emotional reactions to morally relevant event that then influence our reasoning towards right or wrong judgment
303
what is moral foundation theory?
moral foundations = care/harm, fairness/reciprocity, ingroup loyalty, authority, purity
304
what kind of deliberative processe do we use to arrive at a moral judgment (after our gut feeling)
assesments of costs and benefits, causal attributions, considerations of socialnorms
305
what happens if you induce disgust in people?
they have more harsh moral judgment about others
306
altriusm definition
prosocial behavior that benefits others without regard to the consequences for oneself
307
what are the selfish motives mentionned in the book that make us be altruistic?
- social reward
- relieve from personal distress
- empathic concern
308
what is one evidence that humans are wired to care?
children respond altruistically to others in need at a very young age (18 motnhs in the study)
309
what is diffusion of responsibility?
reduction of the sense of urgency to help someone in an emergency based on the assumption that others will help
310
what is the neuroscientific explanation to diffusion of responsibility?
presence of others weakens the strength of the communication between the regions of the brain involved in initiating action and understanding the outcomes of action
311
what victim characteristics increase the help they recieve?
- if they are loud
- if they are in the same group of the helper
312
what is pluralistic ignorance?
if someone is in trouble but people aren't sure of what's happening, people might assume that nothing is wrong because no one is doing anything
313
how do you improve your chances of getting help when you need it?
1. make your need clear
2. select a specific person to help you
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people from what areas have more empathic concern?
rural areas / small town
315
what is more important to decide someone's level of empathic concern: the environment they grew up in, or their current situation?
their current situation
316
3 reasons why people help others less in cities
- stimulus overload
- diversity hypothesis: people less likely to help people
- diffusion of responsibility: more people around
317
why do people who have less give more (2 reasons broad)
- scarcity of resources leads individuals to be more empathically attuned to others
- also people from low socioeconomic backgrounds are better judges of other people's emotions
318
how can we make people who have more (rich) want to give more?
by triggering empathic concern
319
how did religion prime affect altruism in study about giving money?
increase altruism! people were more willing to give to a stranger
320
how did cooperation/community primes affect people in the economic game?
increased altruism
321
what is kin selection?
evolutionary strategy: favors reproductive success of your genetic relatives
322
what is prisoner's dilemma?
game of defecting vs dominating someone else
323
what are the 2 types of social influence? describe
- information social influence: influence of others that comes from taking their comments or actions as a source of information
- normative social influence: influence of others that comes from the desire to avoid their disapproval
324
what does normative social influence stem from?
fear of getting punished for our actions
325
the validity of a consensus opinion increases only if the individual opinions are what?
are independent of one another
326
what can go against conformity and help people to speak up?
having even just 1 person breaking the group unanimity
327
how are informational vs normative social influecne different?
information social influence actually CHANGES our belief to the group's belief.
Normative doesn't change our core belief.
328
what determines if a culture is tight or loose?
conformity to social norms
329
minorities can have influence via which type of social influence?
informational
330
what is the foot in the door technique again?
compliance approach that involves making an initial small request, followed by a larger request
331
what is pluralistic ignorance?
people act in ways that conflict with their true attitudes because they believe others dont share them
332
what was showed to be an effective way to reduce college students alcohol consumption?
providing students with accurate information about their peer's drinking habits
333
how are people influenced by dynamic norms?
people follow trends! we are even more influecned by how the trend is changing
334
descriptive norms correspond to what ___, prescriptive norms correspond to what ____.
is;
ought to be
335
how to talk about descriptive vs prescriptive norms when trying to convince people?
emphasize how many people act following prescriptive norms, instead of emphasizing how many people do not follow the prescriptive norm
336
what is the norm of reciprocity?
norma dictating that people should provide benefits to those who benefit them
337
what is the door in the face technique? (or reciprocal concessions technique)
asking someone a very large favor that will be refused, and then asking a smaller favor
338
how does positive mood affect compliance?
increases compliance!
339
what type of bad mood can increase compliamce?
bad mood centered around guilt
340
what is the negative state relief hypothesis?
idea that people engage in certain actions to relieve their negative feelings and feel better about themselves
341
what was the now or never stop point in milgram experiment?
150 volts
342
what did burger's recreation of milgram experiment show?
no significant difference: people are still as likely to react to pressur the same way they did over 50 yrs ago
343
what is reactance theory?
your freedom becomes more precious the second you feel that it is being taken away
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