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PSYC 211 > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

Lectures 9-17

1
Q

Photoreceptors

A
  • sensory cells of vision
  • contain light-sensitive opsin proteins
  • release neurotransmitter in graded fashion
  • at rest (in the dark), depolarized to -40mV constantly releasing glutamate due to Na leak channels
  • when light hits them, hyperpolarize to -70mV and stop releasing glutamate due to opsin proteins
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2
Q

Sensation vs perception

A

Sensation: how cells of nervous system receive information and transduce into action potential

Perception: the conscious interpretation of sensory info

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3
Q

Opsin proteins

A
  • are metabotropic receptors
  • bind molecule of retinal which when hit by light, activates opsin protein
  • launches g-protein cascade that hyperpolarize neuron
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4
Q

Blue cone opsins are most sensitive to ____ wavelenghts

A

Short

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5
Q

Green cone opsins are most sensitive to _____ wavelengths

A

medium

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6
Q

Red cone opsin most sensitive to ______ wavelengths

A

long

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7
Q

Brightness, saturation and hue

A

In order, relates to:

  • intensity
  • purity in terms of wavelength mixture
  • dominant wavelength (what color is actually seen)
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8
Q

Protanopia

A
  • absence of red cone opsin
  • visual acuity doesn’t change -> red photoreceptors switch to using green cone opsin
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9
Q

Deuteranopia

A
  • absence of green cone opsin
  • visual acuity doesn’t change -> green photoreceptors switch to using red cone opsin
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10
Q

Tritanopia

A
  • absence of blue cone opsin
  • visual acuity not noticeably changed -> not that sensitive to light in first place
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11
Q

Achromatopsia

A
  • true color blindness
  • usually caused by mutations in g-protein cascade used by all cone ospin
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12
Q

Saccadic eye movement

A
  • rapid, jerky shifts in gaze
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13
Q

Pursuit eye movement

A
  • only time eyes calm down and move smoothly
  • maintaining focus on moving object
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14
Q

Visual info pathway within eye

A

Photoreceptors -> bipolar cells -> retinal ganglion cells -> to brain

  • ganglion cells are only cells that send APs to brain
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15
Q

What areas do ganglion cells’ axons project to and what are they responsible for?

A
  • thalamus: which sends info to V1 where it enters consciousness and then association cortex where it is analysed and made sense of
  • midbrain (superior colliculi): used to control fast-visually guided reflexive movements, no conscious awareness of it here, midbrain has no clue what you’re looking at but it draws attention to unexpected visual events
  • hypothalamus: where sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms are monitored/controlled.
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16
Q

Predictive coding theory

A
  • suggests that each node in visual cortex is trying to predict ascending input (incoming input) based on previous input
  • any top-down (descending) activity represents sensory predictions that neutralize any correctly predicted bottom-up (ascending) signals
  • any signal that propagates up would therefore be prediction error signals, whatever has not been cancelled out by interplay b/w the two signals
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17
Q

Bipolar cells

A
  • no APs, release glutamate in graded manner
  • in fovea, receptive fields directly from only one photoreceptor
  • outside of fovea, receptive fields from horizontal and mutliple photoreceptor cells
  • OFF bipolar cells: express excitatory ionotropic glutamate receptor, follow whatever activity pattern of previous photoreceptor (OFF because they don’t affect the activity pattern)
  • ON bipolar cells: express inhibitory metabotropic glutamate receptors, reverse activity pattern of previous photoreceptor (ON because they do affect activity pattern)
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18
Q

Horizontal cells

A
  • compare activity of neighbouring photoreceptor cells and adjust their glutamate release to accentuate contours
  • e.g. if center photoreceptor signals bright light (no glutamate released) and the surrounding photoreceptors signal dim light (a little glutamate release), horizontal cell will depolarize “axon terminals” of surrounding photoreceptors
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19
Q

Dorsal stream

A
  • “where” pathway: how objects are moving, how to interact with them
  • parietal lobe
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20
Q

Ventral stream

A
  • “what” pathway: identifies shape, color of object
  • in temporal lobe
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21
Q

Akinetopsia

A
  • inability to perceive movement
  • damage to dorsal stream in parietal lobe
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22
Q

Cerebral achromatopsia

A
  • inability to perceive color that is not due to deficiency of opsin protein
  • damage to ventral “what” pathway in temporal lobe
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23
Q

Prosopagnosia

A
  • inability to recognize faces, even of familiar people
  • damage to fusiform gyrus (fusiform face area) in ventral stream
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24
Q

Anterior auditory pathway

A
  • “what” pathway
  • temporal and frontal lobes
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25
Q

Identifying vertical direction of sounds at high-frequency

A
  • in adults, using precise mixture of overtones, timbre
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26
Q

Outer hair cells

A
  • act like muscles to adjust sensitivity of tectorial membrane to vibrations
  • are attached to tectorial membrane
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27
Q

Inner hair cells

A
  • sway back and forth with movement of solution
  • sound waves cause basilar membrane to move relative to tectorial membrane pulling open ion channels on hair cilia
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28
Q

Anatomy of cochlea

A
  • divided into three divisions
  • receptive organ in scala media is organ of corti, consists of basilar membrane on bottom, tectorial membrane on top and hair cells in middle
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29
Q

Place coding

A
  • principle of auditory coding in which dif frequencies produce maximal stimulation of hair cells at dif points on basilar membrane
  • moderate to high frequencies entirely encoded by place coding. e.g. human speech
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30
Q

Rate coding

A
  • for low frequency
  • pattern of nrtrm release from hair cell deepest in cochlea determines perception
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31
Q

Pathway from ear to A1

A

organ of Corti through cochlear nerve -> cochlear nuclei in medulla

—-> superior olivary nuclei in medulla for sound localization, where ITD and ILD are measured

—-> inferior colliculi in midbrain, also for sound localization -> medial geniculate nucleus of thalamus -> A1

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32
Q

Posterior auditory pathway

A
  • aka dorsal
  • where pathway in parietal lobe
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33
Q

Amusia

A
  • inability to perceive or produce melodic music
  • can still converse and understand speech
  • can typically still recognise the emotions conveyed by music but not tell whether it is dissonant or consonant
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34
Q

If you play a very sad song and a very happy song to an amusia patient, they will not be able to _________ (3 things), but will likely ________________ .

A
  1. recognize any of the two songs, process/perceive musical content (e.g. beat, melody, harmony), or sing them back
  2. be emotionally affected just like any other person.
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35
Q

What happens if the tip links of your inner hair cells break during a loud concert?

A
  • will grow back
  • temporarily damage hearing
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36
Q

Otolith organs

A
  • vestibular sacs
  • monitor angle of head and linear acceleration
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37
Q

Semicircular canals

A
  • detect head rotation
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38
Q

Exteroceptive system

A
  • monitors external stimuli applied on surface of skin
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39
Q

Triglycerides

A
  • long-term source of energy stored in adipose tissue
  • converted from fatty acids by insulin
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40
Q

Interoceptive system

A
  • monitors what is happening inside of body organs
  • e.g. bowel movement, thirst, hunger, heart rate
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41
Q

Main estrogen of many mammals?

A

estradiol

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42
Q

Proprioceptive system

A
  • monitors position of limbs, position of body, posture and movement
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43
Q

Poorly vs highly localized sensory info

A
  • poorly localized (e.g. crude touch, temp, pain) crosses over in spinal cord, just after first synaptic connection
  • highly localized (e.g. fine touch) ascends ipsilaterally through dorsal column of spinal cord, first synapse in medulla where info crosses over to go to thalamus
  • both get bundled up together in midbrain before going to somatosensory cortex
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44
Q

Role of oxytocin and vasopressin in sexual behavior

A
  • released as neuropeptides in brain and hormones in blood
  • in prairie vole species, affects pair-bonding behavior: artificially increasing expression of oxytocin and vasopressin receptors in non-monagamous prairie vole brains made them form life-long monogamous pair bonds.
45
Q

The layers of skin

A

Epidermis: top layer, dead cells on top and constantly regenerating cells at bottom, cells get oxygen from air

Dermis: middle layer, tones of sensory neurons and blood vessels

Hypordermis: bottom layer, subcutaneous layer of fat

46
Q

Hairless skin

A

Glabrous skin: a lot more sensitive than hairy skin

47
Q

Feeling a light piece of paper on your hand involves which kind of sensory neuron?

A

Meissner’s corpuscles:
- only found on glabrous skin
- sense very light touch and localized edge contours

48
Q

Feeling the small grooves and texture in a knifed table involves which kind of sensory neuron?

A

Merkel’s disks:
- respond to local skin indentation

49
Q

If an animal has no ability to associate its own behavior to a positive response in particular context so that it eventually becomes automatic behavior in such context, it most likely has damage to the _______ ________ .

A

The Basal Ganglia

  • supports reinforcement learning leaving more processing capacity for transcortical regions for other task
  • every neuron of cerebral cortex projects to basal ganglia and synapse in striatum
  • through dopamine signaling that regulate strength of synaptic connections in striatum
50
Q

Feeling the vibrations of a game controller involves the ________ ____________

A

Pacinian corpuscles: respond to skin vibration

51
Q

Feeling the stretch of your skin involves ___ __________

A

ruffini corpuscles: sensitive to stretch and kinesthetic sense of finger position and movement

52
Q

Free nerve endings are:

A
  • sensitive to temp
  • embedded with temp gated ion channels which can be activated by some other molecule (red peppers, tiger balm)
  • poorly localized
  • not myelinated so quite slow
53
Q

Nociceptors are:

A
  • free nerve endings that transduce pain
  • embedded with ATP receptors all over that will get out of cell to activate nearby cells if cut open
54
Q

A newborn will turn toward ______ and _______ types of foods.

A

sweet: detected with single metabotropic receptor

umami: single metabotropic receptor

  • both of these are inherently good from birth, other tastes are “learned” to be liked
55
Q

the six categories of taste receptors

A

sweetness

umami

bitterness: detected with 50 dif metabotropic receptors

saltiness: detected with ion channel highly permeable to Na

sourness: detected with ion channel highly permeable to free protons, detects pH level

some evidence for fat: metabotropic receptors and fatty acid transporters

56
Q

Anatomy of taste buds

A
  • contain 20 to 150 taste receptor cells, some for each type of taste
  • taste receptor cells do not have APs, release nrtrm in graded fashion
  • taste receptor cells replaced every ten days bc hostile environment
57
Q

replacing mice’s sugar receptor gene with bitter receptor gene provokes what type of behavior? what does suggest about our perception of taste?

A
  • mice will not be able to differentiate sugar water from regular water
  • mice will love bitter molecule that now activates cells in their sweet taste receptor cells
  • suggests that taste perception is hard-wire, innate from birth to be either pleasurable or aversive
58
Q

Odorants and what they bind to

A
  • volatile substance with mol weight b/w 15-300
  • receptor proteins transducing odorantas into change in membrane potential are meta g-protein couple receptors: around 400 in humans
59
Q

When female mice housed together without presence of male urine,

A

their estrous cycles slow down and eventually stop

  • lee-boot pheromonal effect
60
Q

Pheromone in urine of male mice can trigger

A

synchronous estrous cycles in groups of female mice

  • whitten effect
61
Q

Presence of male mice in female house triggers

A

earlier onset of puberty

  • vandenbergh effect
62
Q

scent of unfamiliar male can trigger

A

termination of pregnancies in female rodents

  • bruce effect
63
Q

How do we consciously regulate osmometric thirst?

A
  • with osmoreceptors: neurons whose membrane potential is sensitive to size of cell
  • hypotonic (salty) extracellular fluid will cause osmoreceptors to lose water and shrink in size
64
Q

Volumetric thirst regulation

A
  • when not enough blood in body
  • kidney releases renin, initiates cascade of chemical rxns in blood
65
Q

Ghrelin

A
  • peptide that signals empty stomach
  • communicated to brain by stomach
  • does not regulate long-term storage
66
Q

Role of pancreas in energy storage monitoring

A
  • measures blood-glucose levels
  • releases insulin when high blood-glucose which takes up glucose and turns it into glycogen for short-term storage in liver and muscles
  • releases glucagon when low blood-glucose which breaks down glycogen to be converted into energy
67
Q

role of duodenum in short term satiety signals

A
  • releases CCK, PYY, GLP-1 in response to ingestion
  • monitors amount of food ingested, not amount of nutrients
68
Q

Role of leptin in hunger regulation

A
  • hormone released by adipocytes (fat cells) as function of their size
  • adjust sensitivity of brain to short-term satiety signals, e.g. CCK
  • thought to regulate long-term satiety
  • leptin receptors all over brain and especially in arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus
69
Q

ARGP neurons

A
  • promote hunger
  • inhibited by leptin and activated by ghrelin
  • in arcuate nucleus of hypo
70
Q

POMC Neurons

A
  • inhibit hunger
  • activated by leptin and inhibited by ghrelin
  • in arcuate nucleus of hypo
71
Q

Paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of hypo

A
  • get signals from ARGP and POMC neurons
72
Q

Prader-willi syndrome

A
  • chromosomal abnormality which deletes gene important to survival of PVN neuron pop
  • develop intense hunger, feeling of starving to death
  • can accidentally consume enough food in one sitting to fatally rupture stomach
73
Q

Sexual dimorphic behaviors

A
  • behavior that differ in their forms across males and females
  • e.g. parenting behavior, courting, mating
74
Q

Mullerian system

A
  • embryonic precursors of female internal sex organs
75
Q

Wolffian system

A
  • embryonic precursors of male internal sex organs
76
Q

Undifferentiated gonads

A
  • turn into ovaries or testes in 2nd month of gestation
77
Q

SRY gene

A
  • located on Y chromosome
  • encodes protein that start development of undifferentiated gonads into testes by overpowering XX-ovary instructions
  • testes that will then release anti-mullerian hormones and androgens
78
Q

Effect of embryonic testicular hormones

A

Once testes developed form SRY gene, release

  • anti-mullerian hormone: stops mullerian system development (internal female sex organs)
  • androgens (testosterone): starts development of internal and external male sex organs
79
Q

What hypothalamus-produced hormone would be expected to appear a little before puberty and thereafter?

A

Kisspeptin

  • triggers puberty
  • maintain reproductive ability by triggering release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone
80
Q

Gonadotropin hormones

A

hormones of pituitary gland that have stimulating effects on cells of gonads

  • stop release of these hormones and men will no show testicular release of androgens and have decreased sexual interest
81
Q

How would electric stimulations to mPOA (Medial preoptic area) affect male rodents’ behavior?

A
  • increased sexual behavior
82
Q

Menstrual cycle vs estrous cycle

A
  • menstrual cycles: in most primates, concealed ovulation and no mating season, no affect on sexual activity
  • estrous cycle: in most mammals excluding primates, mating season and clearly shown ovulation, no sexual activity outside of these cycles
83
Q

REM sleep

A
  • Rapid Eye Movement

Associated with
- desynchronized EEG activity, dreaming, muscle paralysis, increase in cerebral blood flow and oxygen consumption

84
Q

Slow-wave sleep

A
  • stage 3/4 non-REM sleep
  • deep sleep
  • large amplitude, low frequency oscillations of brain activity: large collection of neurons coordinate to fire together but rather slowly
85
Q

Main theories explaining why animals sleep?

A
  1. memory consolidation
  2. waste removal, some evidence but not the strongest
  3. recovering from physical or mental exertion, almost no correlation
86
Q

Lesions to the suprachiasmatic nucleus would lead to…

A
  • broken circadian rhythms, individual would sleep same amount but at random intervals
  • in hippothalamus, receives direct input from retina
87
Q

Electrical stimulations of the ventral lateral preoptic area (vlPOA) cause…

A
  • drowsiness and sometimes immediate sleep
  • lesions supress sleep and cause insomnia
  • in negative feedback loop with wake-promoting area, when one is active, it inhibits the other
88
Q

Narcolepsy is associated with absence of ______

A

Orexin

  • peptide produced by neurons in lateral hypo
  • promotes wakefulness
89
Q

A patient who does not feel temperature changes in the right side of their body most likely has damage to

A

left spinothalamic tract

90
Q

A patient with lesions in the right dorsal column will not feel

A
  • fine touch in their right hand
91
Q

A patient with lesions to the left medial lemniscus (above crossing point) part of the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway will not feel

A
  • fine touch in their right hand
92
Q

Turner syndrome

A
  • only one chromosome: X-, no gonadal development
  • female sex organs will develop because no anti-Mullerian hormone
  • no gonads -> sterile
93
Q

Swyer syndrome

A
  • XY but bad SRY gene needed for development of testes
  • female sex organs because no anti-mullerian hormone
  • no gonads -> sterile
94
Q

A bad SRY gene can lead to no hormone release at all (Swyer syndrome) but can also lead to two dif scenarios. What are they and what are their effects?

A

Insufficient anti-Mullerian hormone signaling:

  • development of female internal sex organs
  • androgen release still intact so internal and external male sex organs
  • tangled up internal male and female sex organs but external male organs

Insuficient androgens signaling (androgen insensitivity syndrome):

  • anti-Mullerian hormones still intact so defeminization okay
  • no or poor development of male sex organs (in extreme cases, will look like external female organ; in mild cases, external genitalia is fully masculinized)
95
Q

Organizational vs activational effects of sex hormones

A

Organaziational:
- largely over by birth but continue to continue a few weeks after birth, at least in rodents
- life-long effects that generally speaking are hard to overturn

Activational:
- puberty causes sex hormone release which changes mind and body (kisspeptin -> gonadotropin releasing hrm -> gonadotropin -> acts on gonad activity)

96
Q

In female rodents: no hormone treatment immediately after birth + testosterone treatment when fully grown results in:

A
  • no sexual behavior at all
97
Q

In female rodents: testosterone immediately after birth + testosterone treatment when fully grown results in:

A
  • male typical sexual behavior
  • evidence for masculinization as testosterone promotes male sexual behavior
98
Q

In female rodents: testosterone treatment immediately after birth + estradiol and progesterone treatment when fully grown results in:

A
  • no sexual behavior at all
  • evidence of defeminization as estradiol and progesterone fail to facilitate female sexual behavior
99
Q

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

A
  • abnormally high levels of androgens at birth in females
  • results in masculinization of brain, body, or both
  • if high levels during development, can lead to masculinized sex organs
  • females with CAH higher likelyhood of identifying as male and being attracted to women
100
Q

Electrical stimulations of/direct injections of estradiol and progesterone into the VMH (ventromedial hypothalamus) of a female rodent’s brain facilitates

A
  • sexual behavior
101
Q

Beta activity

A
  • typical of aroused state
  • desynchronous activity
102
Q

Alpha activity

A
  • typical of wake person in relaxation state
103
Q

theta activity

A
  • appears intermittently when ppl drowsy
  • prominent during early stages of sleep
104
Q

Delta activity

A
  • <4 Hz
  • reflects large population of neurons firing together at low frequency, large amplitude
  • characteristic of deep non-REM sleep
105
Q

Lymphatic vs glymphatic system

A

Glymphatic system clears waste from brain as CSF moves through interstitial space

Lymphatic clears waste from everywhere else in body

106
Q

How does serotonin and norepinephrine neuron activity correlate with sleep?

A
  • those neurons decrease their activity during sleep
107
Q

Retrograde signaling molecules for long-term depression

A

endocannabinoids

108
Q

Retrograde signaling molecules for long-term potentiation

A

Nitric oxide

PSYC 211 (2 decks)

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