midterm 2 Flashcards
consciousness
our awareness of our environment/selves
dual processing
brains process info at 2 levels
serial processing (consciousness can only process 1 step at a time
unconscious processes super fast
parallel processing
blindsight
consciously, we are blind
unconsciously, we still have some vision
subliminal stimulation
we’re exposed to a stimulus and the exposure is super fast
–> info gets to brain but never reaches consciousness
cannot see object consciously but can still influence behaviours
serial processing
consciousness can only process one step at a time
parallel processing
processes multiple pirces of info simultaneously
subconscious processing (priming)
we are exposed to a stimulus and are aware of it, HOWEVER we don’t know that the stimulus is unconsciously activating in our brain memories and the information linked to it
–> can affect behaviour
where does consciousness come from
the brain
attention
allow us to focus our awareness on a tiny point of stimulation around us
value (attention)
ability to pay attention to valuable & essential things for survival
(t/f) attention is an unlimited resourse
FALSE
is attention selective
YES. focusing attention on a certain stimuli causes us to disregard other stimuli in the environment
inhibition (attention)
paying attention to a specific stimuli causes the brain to inhibit us from processing other info
–> sharpens attention
cocktail party effect
at a party –> very loud and noisy but can focus attention on an interesting convo
in spite of this, if someone said our name we’re likely to pick it up
dichotic listening
used to study selective attention
2 diff msgs in each ear at the same time –> patients asked to pay attention to one ear only
we still pick up info from he other ear
Corteen and Wood Experiment (1972)
experiment to examine DEGREE we use dichotic listening
conditioned to associate city names with an electric shock
–> city names were played in unattended ear
–> used GSR (galvanic skin response) measurements ( measures arousal in sympathic nervous system)
–> 38% response rate for recognized city names, 10% for unrelated words
passive (attention attraction)
bottom-up process
stimuli in environment grabs our attention bc there is something that stands out about it
active (attention attraction)
top-down
we intentionally chose what we are going to pay attention to
inattentional blindness
we’re going to fail to detect a significant stimulus in our environment
change blindness
we’re engaged with a stimulus but don’t notice the change in the stimulus
intentional change detection
we’re told that the stimulus is going to change, but we still have a hard time detecting the change
divided attention (multitasking)
consciousness can’t multitask, we tend to slow down and make errors
visual neglect
attention disorder
part of the world becomes non existent for us
can happen in the right or left hemisphere depending on what’s dmged
ex. u only shave one side of ur face –> u can see the other side but ur not aware of it
fatal familial insonmia
rare hereditary disease that affects THALAMUS
can die from lack of sleep 12-18 months after symptoms start
electroencephalograms (EEGs)
measure activity across surface of brain
electrooculograms
used to measure movements of eyes in sleep
electromyograms
used to measure tension and muscles of jaw
2 observable patterns when awake
relaxed wakefulness, awake and alert
alpha waves
8-12 Hz
more regular and predictable than beta waves
relaxed wakefulness
alpha waves
when person is quietly resting
beta waves
13-30 Hz
desynchronized and erratic waves –> many neural circuits processing information
stages of non-REM sleep
STAGE 1, STAGE 2, slow wave sleep (SWS_
STAGE 1 (non-REM sleep)
theta waves
transition from relaxed state –> early sleep (very light)
theta waves
3.5-7.5Hz
awake and alert (stages of sleep)
beta waves
STAGE 2 (non-REM sleep)
sleep spindles, K complex
sleep spindles
(12-14Hz)
occur around 2-5 times/min
thought to play a role in memory consolidation
higher sleep spindles associated with higher IQ test scores
K complex
bursts of energy on EEGs
occur around once/min
can be triggered by unexpected noises, still wouldn’t have a sense of sleep when woken
prepares brain to enter SWS
slow wave sleep (SWS)
delta waves
15-20 min after STAGE 2 starts
deepest stage of sleep, only a strong stimulus will wake u
groggy, confused when woken
delta waves
less than 4Hz
regular, high-amplitude waves
REM sleep (rapid eye movement)
theta waves, beta waves
45 min after SWS starts
brain is very active with vivid dreams, but easier to wake than SWS
REM sleep antonia
generally become paralyzed during REM sleep
what happens to blood flow to brain during REM sleep
blood flow reduced, but visual association cortex and prefrontal cortex receive a large proportion of oxygenated blood
function of SWS
important for resting brain over body
important for explicit memories
regions with highest activity during waking hours is resting
function of REM
benefits brain’s ability to absorb and process information
rebound phenomenon (REM)
there is a need for a certain amount of REM sleep
–> if brain is deprived from REM for a couple days, brain tries to enter REM more quickly and for a longer period of time
increased % of time spent in REM in infants
insomnia
inability to fall asleep/inability to remain asleep
sleep hygeine
habits and behaviours conducive to sleeping well
conditioned insomnia
learned insomnia
–> going to bed becomes associated with inability to fall asleep
among the most commonly diagnosed forms of primary insomnia
idiopathic insomnia
child onset insomnia
neurophysiological abnormality in the CNS
begins in childhood, more resistant to treatment
hypersomnia
excessive sleepiness, caused by poor sleep during the night
sleep apnea
intake of oxygen is reduced as person sleeps
–> brain sends signal to body as blood oxygen decreases –> sleeper wakes
treatment for sleep apnea
CPAP: pressurized air mask htat pushes pressurized air through airway
narcolepsy
rare genetic neurodegenerative disorder that has several symptoms:
- sudden and extreme need to sleep
- cataplectic attacks
- paralysis with hallucinations
cataplexy/cataplectic attacks (narcolepsy)
paralysis experience during REM initiates and inappropriate times
initiated by emotionally engaging events
kinds of hallucinations (narcolepsy_
hypnagogic: upon onset of sleep
hypnopompic: just before waking
circadian rhythym
daily clocks, closer to 25 hours
zeitgebers
time givers/cues
–> our clock is reset every morning by cues associated with morning activity
reliable stimuli in the environment tht provide information about the time of day
what resets our daily clock
presence/absence of light
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN):
your body’s timekeeper
sends signals to several regions of the brain → ex. pineal gland
pineal gland secretes melatonin
psychoactive drugs
drugs that influence/affect function of brain/NS
where do drugs produce their effects
synapse
–> interfere with communication between neurons
dopamine
pleasure molecule
what do most street drugs agonize
dopamine
tolerance (drugs)
can develop a tolerance if we abuse a drug
–> need to consume more and more to get the desired effect
neuroadaptation
when we use drugs, our brains adapt to that by changing themselves (plasticity)
brain may stop production of certain NT or shut down receptors for certain NT
withdrawal
happens when you stop abusing a drug
–> can get uncomfortable and painful symptoms
drug dependence
physical: need drug to function normally
psychological: feel like we can’t live without it
2 major types of drugs
- depressants
- stimulants
- hallucinogens
depressants
reduce, slow down activity of the NS/brain
alcohol
depressent at all dosages
what area of the brain is affected by alcohol
hippocampus
–> part of brain that deals with memories
–> memories of a drunk night are hazy
barbiturates (depressants)
- more addictive
- more powerful
- known as downers
benzodiazepines (depressants)
- highly addictive
- known as tranquilizers
- eg. xanax - valium
stimulants (drugs)
psychoactive drugs that speed up/increase activity of NS/brain
(t/f) depressants have a lethal aditive effect
TRUE
nicotine
damages ur DNA
1 cigarette = lose 11/12 min of life
why cant u stop smoking
nicotine is highly addictive –> enhances the activity of multiple NTs:
- acetylcholine
- norepinephrine
- dopamine
nicotine’s dual effect
- sluggish –> smoke –> perk up
- anxious –> smoke –> calm down
effects of long-term use of nicotine on acetylcholine
reduces levels of acetylcholine
cocaine
stimulant that blocks reuptake of some NTS –> enhances:
- dopamine
- norpinephrine
- serotonin
can end up with chronic permanent depression that requires meds`
formication
feeling as if we have bugs/insects crawling in skin
stereotypic behaviours (cocaine)
non sensical behaviours that we repeat while under the influence of cocaine
amphetamines
stimulant
combats effects of hunger and fatigue
agonizes dopamin
–> inhibits reuptake of dopamine and stimulates release of it from terminal buttons
hallucinogens
directly influence sensory systems and interpretation of reality
psychedelics
have most profound effects on consciousness
LSD
man-made
areas of the brain that usually talk to each other communicate more/stop talking to each other
which part of the brain does LSD affect
thalamus
–> explains why LSD users experience fusing of senses
marijuana
attaches to cannabinoid receptors found all over brain
active ingredient: THC
increases dopamine release
what NTs are inhibited by marijuana
norepinephrine, acetylcholine, glutamate, GABA
whats more likely to lead to addiction: inhaled drug, digested drug
INHALED
classical conditioning
we learn to associate 2 events/stimuli
–> learn that one event signals arrival of another
stimulus triggers response
respondant behaviour
response that occurs in the presence of a stimulus
operant conditioning
learn to associate a behaviour with its consequences
operant behaviour
organism initiates the behaviour and it produces consequences
fundamental principle (OC)
behaviour is controlled by its consequences
–> desired consequence –> likely to repeat it
law of effect (OC)
when a behaviour produces an undesirable/desirable consequence, we are more likely to repeat it
thorndike
stipulated the law of effect and started research on operant conditioning
–> instrumental conditioning
skinner
linked and associated with operant conditioning
strict behaviourist
ABCs (OC)
A = antecedent
B = behaviour
C = consequence
differential vs non-differential consequences
Differential: receiving different consequences
–> leads to FASTER LEARNING
Non-differential: receiving the same consequence
reinforcer
consequence of a behaviour that makes the behaviour more likely to repeat in the future
2 types of reinforcers
positive, negative
positive reinforcer
produces a consequence where we receive something pleasant
negative reinforcer
increases possibility that behaviour will occur again
2 forms of negative reinforcers
escape, avoidance
primary reinforcers
reinforcers that are naturally reinforcing
–> no learning required
conditioned reinforcers (secondary reinforcers)
learning is required –> not naturally reinforcing –> learn through experience
generalized conditioned reinforcers
objects traded for several other reinforcers
–> don’t lose their power to reinforce behaviour
immediate reinforcers
we do the behaviour and immediately or shortly after are reinforced
delayed reinforcers
do the behaviour but wait for the reinforcement
2 types of scheduling consequences
continuous, intermittent
continuous scheduled consequence
Every single time the behaviour takes place, it is reinforced; without exception
good for teaching a new behaviour
HOWEVER when the behaviour is learned, it is important to move to intermittent because it helps to maintain the behaviour longer
intermittent scheduleing consequence
more resistant to exctinction
sometimes the behaviour is reinforced, sometimes is not
makes behaviour more likely to be maintained for a longer period
PARTIAL EXTINCTION EFFECT
categories of partial extinction effect
ratio: number of responses that determine when behaviour is going to be reinforced
interval: passage of time that will determine when a behaviour is going to be reinforced
2 types of ratio (partial extinction)
ficed ratio: very specific # of behaviours must occur before reinforcement happens
variable ratio” # of responses that must occur will vary/change
–> PRODUCES THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF RESPONSES
2 types of intervals (partial extinction)
fixed interval: very specific amt of time must go by for the desired behaviour to take place
variable interval: amt of time that must go by before reinforcing behaviour varies
–> produes THIRD LOWEST rate
break-and-run pattern of responding
FIXED RATIO schedule
run: when we produce many responses quickly until we earn a reqrd
break: occurs after delivery of reinforcer
2 types of punishment
positive punishment: as a consequence, something unpleasant is added
negative punishment: as a consequence, something we desire is taken away
what did skinner advocate for? why?
positive reinforcement bc it has a longer-lasting effect on behaviour
What would reduce/stop an undesired behaviour faster: extinction or punishment?
PUNISHMENT
why shouldn’t u use punishment
- Doesn’t teach a person what to do to get reinforcers
- Involves aversive stimuli, including some that cause pain
- A person who uses punishment successfully once is more likely to use it again
- person learns to use punishment to control others’ behaviour
- only decreases behaviour if the response is punished a) immediately, b) every time, c) with a large aversive stimulus
operant extinction
stop reinforcing behaviour of interest
–> must identify where is the reinforcer of the behaviour
extinction burst
during extinction procedure, this may occur
–> situation will get worse before it gets better
what happens when exinction alone is used to stop self-injurious behaviours
target behaviour increased before it stopped
tolman
father of cognitive psychology
–> criticized skinner’s ideas, which started the ball rolling
–> said sometimes learning can take place without reinforcement
behaviourism
dominated psychology for almost 50 years. study of the mind, conscious, etc. that flourishes the study of psychology
latent learning
we acquire knowledge without any reinforcement
–> knowledge remains hidden until we have a reason to display it
cognitive map
mental map u have in ur mind
–> skinner said when rats learn to run a maze, they learn via trial and error
–> tolman dais they are learning the layout of the map
learned helplessness
can experience this when repeatedly exposed to stimulus that is aversive and uncontrollable
we give up and stop trying completely
bandura
learning by observation –> vicarious learning –> social learning
social learning
we observe the social world around us
–> what is rewarded/punished and adjust our behaviours accordingly
mirror meurons
highly specialized neurons in diff parts of the brain are linked to empathy/learning
–> activate when we watch someone or us ourselves perform a behaviour
bandura’s model of cognitive processes
strongly believed cognitive process is essential for learning
in order to imitate behaviour 4 things must be present:
1. attention
2. memory
3. action/motor skills
4. motivation
learning
relatively permanent change in how we think, feel and behave as a result of experience
3 major ways we learn
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
observational learning
conditioning
we learn to form associations
pavlov
classical conditioning, dog and bell
higher order conditioning
We trained the dog to salivate at the sound of the bell, and dog does very well.
factors associated with classical conditioning
- frequency
- timing
- order of presentation
stimulus generalization
Ex. ONE dog bites you, and you become afraid of ALL dogs
stimulus disctimination
One dog bites you, and you’re ONLY afraid of that dog; you’re NOT afraid of other dogs.
pavlov vs. modern researchers
modern researchers say u MUST take cognitive processes into consideration
introspection
subjects will observe their own mental processes and observe them
watson
believed psychology should only study observable behaviours
CT scan
Computerized Tomography
Uses x-rays that pas through body, can generate images of “slices” of the body
ex. detect changes in structure to to disease
pros/cons of CT scan
pro:
- Fast, cheap, non-invasive
con:
- radiation exposure
- only less us see the structures of the brain, not the brain in action
MRI
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Uses magnetic fields to image alignments of H+ ions (diff tissues have diff amts of water
ex. can detect changes in structure due to disease
pros/cons of MRI
pro:
- noninvasive, great precision, no radiation
con:
- very expensive
- cannot have biomedical devices or metal in patients
- just gives an image of the brain, not the brain in action
fMRI
functional MRI
uses magnetic fields to image alignments of H+ ions. exposed to magnetic field –> tracks oxygenated blood
More active parts of brain will consume more oxygenated blood
ex. can measure activation during task/stimulation
DTI
Diffusion Tensor Imaging
tracks and images water movement alone neural pathways, can measure density of neural tracts (bundles of axons). Tracks nerves of the brain and the connections between different areas
ex. study white matter degeneration in disease
pros/cons of DTI
pro:
- noninvasive
- no radiation
- no injections
con:
- interpretation can be difficult in tracts with diff kinds of fibers
pros/cons of fMRI
pro:
- noninvasive
- no radiation
- no injections
con:
- cardiovascular disease/compromise function can make measurements unreliable –> elay between stimulus/output
- shows the brain in action
PET/SPECT
Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography
Uses ingested radioactive compound to track molecular changes, person is injected with radioactive substance
ex. visualize the activity of specific neurotransmitters
What substance are patients usually injected with for a PET scan?
Glucose
Pros/cons of PET/SPECT
pro:
- can see molecular changes in real time
- determine which part of brain is more active
- can see brain in action
con:
- radiation exposure
endocrine system
major communication system that consists of all glands in the body
3 types of hormones
homeostasis, reproductive, stress
pituitary gland
master gland of the endocrine system, boss of almost all glands of system
hypothalamus
controls pituitary gland
how does the NS affect the endocrine system
hypothalamus
transduction
brain only understands electrochemical messages, so physical energy must be translated into a message the brain can understand
transmission
message must be transmitted to brain for processing
sensory receptors
respond to physical energy/stimulation from natural world
the ones that detect, transduce, and transmit
bottom-up processing
collect raw data from world and sent it to brain
top-down processing
brain uses excisting knowledge, memories, beliefs, in order to interpret information
prosopagnosia
when the eyes work, but no perception
psychophysics
scientific study of how physical characteristics of the physical world trsnlate into psychological experiences
absolute threshold
minimal amt of energy that must be there for us to detect it 50% of the time
difference threshold (JND)
minimum amount of change in stimulation for us to detect it 50% of the times
weber’s law
ability to notice the difference between 2 stimuli is proportional to the intensity or size of the stimulus
signal detection theory
ability to detect a stimulation doesn’t depends only on how the stimulation is –> large number of factors
ex. how healthy we are, fatigue, motivation, mood
perception
brain taking raw sensory data and interpreting it in a meaningful way
what do you need to see
light
light is a form of ???
electromagnetic radiation
what is the range of visible light
400-700nm
what colour are long waves
red
amplitude
height of wavelength
rods and cones (retina)
sensory receptors for vision, connected to bipolar cells
bipolar cells
connected to ganglion cells
ganglion cells
axons bunch up together to form the optic nerve
optic nerve
carry visual information to brain
blind psot
where optic nerve leaves the eye
–> no rods/cones in that area so nothing to detect light
fovea
center of retina, responsible for visual activity
allows us to see fine detail
where are rods found
in the periphery
where are cones found
heavily concentrated in fovea
what is the connction for cones - bipolar cells
1-1
** multiple rods for one bipolar
cone function (retina)
needs lots of light to activate
allows us to see colour
rods function (retina)
activated by little light, used when dark
involved in peripheral vision
simple cell vs. complex cell
simple cell: respond to small stationary bars of light oriented at specific angles
complex cell: respond to lines of particular orientation moving in specific directions
parietal lobe
WHERE pathway
dorsal stream, lets us know where an object is in space, whether it is moving or not
temporal lobe
WHAT pathway
ventral stream
limbic system
responsible for emotional reactions
trichromatic theory
3 primary light colours, combining them allows us to see more colours
compl. afterimages
continue to perceive an objecte ven though we aren’t looking at it anymore
4 RGBY
4 primary light colours –> red, green, blue, yellow
3 antagonistic colour system
3 antagonistic colour system
red and green RG
blue and yellow BY
black and white BW
RG
neurons respond to RG light, but respond in opposite ways
–> red excites neuron, green inhibits
principle of figure-ground
certain information is given priority over the background
principle of proximity
objects close to one another will be grouped together
principle of similarity
objects physically similar will be grouped together
principle of closure
tend to perceive whole objects, even when part of that information is missing
principle of good continutation
if lines cross each other/are interrupted, people tend to still see continuously flowing lines
principle of common fate
objects moving together will be grouped together
depth perception
brain uses bottom-up and top-down processing to understand
2 kinds of depth cues
- monocular (1 eye)
- binocular (2 eyes)
3 characteristics of sound waves
frequency(Hz), –> pitch amplitude(Db) –> loudness, complexity –> timbre (what makes a sound unique)
pinna
captures and funnels sound waves into auditory canal
auditory canal
soundwaves travel until it reaches the eardrum
ossicles (eardrum)
tiniest bone in body, vibration cauyses oval window to vibrate
oval window (eardrum)
membrane in ear
cochlea(eardrum)
fluid inside cochlea, vibration from oval window causes fluid in cochlea to move in waves
basilar membrane (eardrum)
waves of cochlear fluid cause basilar membrane to vibrate
cilia (hair cells) (eardrum)
vibration of basilar membrane causes cilia to sway and bend
–> they fire
sensory receptors of the ear
auditory nerve(eardrum)
hair cells detect, transduce, transmit information from brain via auditory nerve
carries info to brain
thalamus MGN
info goes from auditory nerv to here
auditory cortex (temporal lobes)
stops here after going to thalamus MGN
tonotopic organization
auditory systems maintains this from basilar membrane to auditory cortex
simple sounds are processed in ???
lower regions
why do some neurons that process auditory info have faster action potential and larger terminal buttons
timing is critical to understand
place theory
sound waves of difference frequencies will activate different areas of the basilar membrane
high-frequency sound waves
activate hair cells located at BEGINNING of membrane
LF sound waves
activate hair cells located at the END of the basilar membrane
frequency theory
soundwave of different frequencies will affect rate of firing
2 binural cues
time of arrival, loudness
cutaneous senses
sense more than just touch (wetness of our skin, a cut)
mechanoreceptors
top layer:
- merkel receptor (pressure)
- meissner receptor (pressure)
deeper layers
- ruffini cylinder (stretching of skin)
- pacinian corpuscle (vibration, texture)
what are the merkel and meissner receptors for
pressure
nociceptors
sensory receptors that detect, transduce, and transmit info about pain
neurological gate
state of gate is linked ans associated whether we experience pain or not
small nerve fibers (S-fibers)
mostly carry pain info –> gate is opened, likely to feel pain
large nerve fibers (L-fibers)
mostly carry info NOT related to pain –> gate is closed, likely to feel little pain
T-cells
middle men between fibers and gate
–> must be activated for gate to open
Small nerve fibers activate, which activate t-cells, when then open the gate, and we are likely to feel pain.
When large nerve fibers are activated, t-cells are inhibited, the gate doesn’t open, and we are likely to feel little to no pain as a result.
olfactory receptors (smell)
scent must reach our nasal cavities and olfactory receptors for us to smell
olfactory epithelium(smell)
membrane filled with mucus
glomeruli (smell)
located in olfactory bulb, sends info to different parts of the brain, including limbic system
regeneration of olfactory cells
cells regenerate every few weeks, but lose numbers as we age
filiform papillae (tongue)
entire surface of tongue, doesn’t have taste buds
fungiform papillae (tongue)
tips and sides of tongue
foliate papillae
back of tongue
circumvallate
back of tongue
4 basic senses
SSSB: sweet, sour, salty, bitter
umami
japanese 5th sense linked with savory foods
bimodal neurons
neurons that respond to more than one sense
kinesthesis
allows us to know where are body is
sensory receptors: proprioceptors
vestibular sense
balance
2 organs linked with sense of balance
- semicircular canals: sense rotation of head
- vestibular sacs: respond to cues of balance and posture
gustatory cells
sensory receptors for taste found in taste buds
papillae
bumps on tongue
experimental group vs control group
experimental: expose to IV
control: not exposed to IV
biological constraints of classical conditioning
you MUST take cognitive processes and take them into considerations. Animals are not stupid learners; they assess and evaluate the information.
If the information gives them protective power and it is reliable, they WILL learn it. If it doesn’t give them prodective power and it isn’t reliable, they WILL NOT learn it.
biologically predisposed
we are biologically prepared to learn via observation
(t/f) babies start to imitate facial expressions very early in life
T
Tolman and Honzik’s experiment
hypothesis: Said there is no change in our performance until we receive a reward
FOOD GROUP rats: received food when they reached the end of the maze
Made fewer errors
NO FOOD GROUP: did not receive food for the first 10 days
11th day → received food
Made fewer errors and ran faster than previous days as well as the FOOD group
Suggested that they were actively constructing cognitive maps of the maze
(t/f) learned helplessness can be specific and generalized
T
split brain
we have a Rt visual field & a LVF
Info —> RVF —> LH
Info —> LVF —> RH
LH —> Language, Rt body
RH —> Left body
gestalt principles of organization
we were born with specific, predisposed, ways of organizing information so that it has utility
synonym for olfaction
smell
