final exam Flashcards
3 processes of memory
- encoding
- storage
- retrieval
explicit memory
memory with consciousness and awareness
- we can retrieve it, consciouslt remember and be aware of it
declarative memory
explicit memory
implicit memory
memory of skills, knowledge, habits, and information that have become automatic
ex. riding a bike
memory without awareness/consciousness
procedural memory
IMPLICIT MEMORY
skills where we put lots of time and energy into learning them, and then they become automatic
ex. riding a bike
non-declarative memory
implicit memory
prospective memory
memory of future events and future goals
retrospective memory
memory of past events
functions of memory
knowledge we have acquired helps us go through life more effectively and become better
helps us revisit and relive the past
sensory memory
our sense constantly collect info from the environment
–> we tend to hold onto this information for a brief period of time
haptic memory
memory linked with sense of touch
limitless capacity
very short period of time
iconic memory
sensory memory for visual system
holds onto it for a quarter-half of a second
echoic memory
sensory memory for sense of hearing
hold onto auditory information for 3-4 seconds
function of sensory memory
allows for the moments of our lives to flow seamlessly from one moment to the next
synonyms for short term memory
working memory, immediate memory
capacity of short term meory
7-9 items plus/minus 2 OR any amount of information that can fit in 2 seconds
duration of short term memory
12 seconds
–> unless we’re rehearsing the info over and over again it will fade/move into long term memory storage
what kind of info is encoded
- acoustic
- visual
- semantic
working memory model
not just a storage –>
STM is a workbench where we manipulate, assess, play w information
ex. math equation
phonological loop
going to process auditory information
ex. sound of piano, language, or OURSELVES
visuospatial sketchpad
place to process visual information/what an object is
spacial information –> we can ORIENT our movement towards that object and navigate our space
central executive
(most complex/least understood)
manages the flow of information between diff components
helps us focus our attention on what’s important
- supress/inhibit information that isn’t important/distracting
long-term emmory
can store information for an extended period of time
limitless capacity
can last from minutes to a lifetime
types of long-term memory
- episodic
- semantic
- procedural
episodic LTM
“autobiographical”
- memories of events, experiences occurring to us or other people
EXPLICIT MEMORY
semantic LTM
memory of KNOWLEDGE we have acquired
–> can be factual or incorrect
EXPLICIT MEMORY
procedural LTM
memory of how to use skills, habits
initially we put time/energy into learning these skills
–> once acquired they become automatic
IMPLICIT MEMORY
automatic processing
throughout the day, we acquire information that goes into long-term storage without us putting conscious effort into it
effortful processing
consciously invest time and energy into getting the information in
examples of effortful processing
- rehearsal
- chunking
- mnemonic devices
- spacing effect/distributed practice
- testing effect
- self-reference effect
- visual imagery
rehearsal
the more we repeat it the more likely we are to learn it
chunking (effortful processing)
break it down into manageable pieces
mnemonic devices
any devices we use to remember
cramming/massed practice
ex. leaving all the studying until the night before an exam –>study in one long session
spacing effect.distributed practice
break down info into multiple sessions over a period of time
self-reference effect
any info we relate to ourselves we will remember better
testing effect
testing yourself rather than rereading info
visual imagery (effortful processing)
any information we can visualize we remember better
organizational processing
invest time and energy into organizing the information we have
–> organize into hierarchies/categories
adaptive memory model
as life evolved, a memory system was developed
–> essential for survival/enhances it
any info linked with survival we are more likely to remember it
levels of processing
shallow: ex. for visual information we pay attention to superficial characteristics (ex. underlines or bold)
deep: process the information semantically and focus on the meaning
–> where we learn, remember, and perform better
retrieval (memory)
accessing the information from LTM and bring it into STM
-> can sometimes remember something without any help
retrieval cues
any clue/hint/piece of info that jogs our memory to enhance retrieval
more relevant retrieval cue –> better retrieval of memory
retrieval cue failure
failed to remember because the cues were irrelevant, inappropriate, or do not match the information or interest
free recall
remember without using retrieval cues
cued recall
remember with the help of retrieval cues
encoding specificity principle
retrieval is enhanced and facilitated if, at the moment of retrieval, we are in the same circumstances we were in at the moment of encoding
memory transfer principle
associated with encoding specificity principle
retrieval is enhanced and facilitated, if at the moment of retrieval, we are using the same or similar processes to the ones we used when we were encoding the information
Daniel Schacter
proposed the sins of memory
2 types of sins of memory
OMISSION (3)
COMMISSION (4)
sins of omission
when we fail to remember something
- interference
- absent-mindedness
- blocking
sin of transience
sin of OMISSION
if we do not revisit our memories, with time they weaken and decay
interference (memory)
sin of OMISSION
diff pieces of info compete with each other
- PROACTIVE: OLD information interferes with ability to remember new information
- RETROACTIVE:NEW information interferes with ability to remember old information
absent-mindedness
sin of OMISSION
when we are distracted and not paying attention to what’s going on, interferes with ability to remember
–> at moment of encoding OR retrieval
blocking (memory)
sin of OMISSION
information in memory is temporarily not accessible to us
–> tip of the tongue
sins of commission
what we remember is distorted, biased, inaccurate, or unwanted
- misattribution error
- suggestibility
- bias
- persistance
misattribution error
we remember the information but cannot remember the source or context
ex. remember seeing somewhere at the park but we acc saw them at the library
- DEJA VU: strange feeling that this person or place is very familiar and that we’ve seen them before
–>they have characteristics that are similar to someone or a place we’ve experienced or seen before. However, we cannot remember the characteristics, so we are left with that feeling of familiarity - FLASHBULB MEMORIES: memories that are traumatic/dramatic/or very meaningful
–> very vivid
sin of suggestibility
sin of COMISSION
we form false memories because of information given to us by others/we imagined something over and over again
- misinformation effect: After we experience an event, we are given inaccurate information about it
- imagination effect:If we imagine something over and over and over again, we could end up forming a false memory about it
sin of bias
sin of COMISSION
our own knowledge/beliefs influence/affect our memories by distorting them
- schemas: mental representation of something/someone
–> can influence memories at the moment of encoding or moment of retrieval
–>Encoding: At the moment of encoding, any information that fits with our schema, we’re going to give it attention, we’re going to encode it, and remember it better.
–> Retrieval: At the moment of retrieval, we’re not retrieving the information as it is stored, rather we are retrieving it through the filter of the schema.
sin of persistence
sin of COMISSION
when we remember something over and over again when we don’t want to
ex. PTSD
active forgetting
brain purposefully deletes information it deems useless
AJ’s brain
right half of her amygdala (processing emotion) was larger and way more connected to the hippocampus –> known for formation of memories
amnesia
abnormal loss of memory
alzheimer’s
disease that kills neurons
–> neurons killed first are linked to learning
2 types of amnesia
RETROGRADE, ANTEROGRADE
retrograde amnesia
can’t remember the past
anterograde amnesia
cannot form new memories
most explicit memory, implicit memory is harder to forget
what part of the brain is linked to anterograde amnesia
hippocampus
emotions
complex psychophysiological processes
–> reaction of our bodies and brains to significant stimuli or our own thoughts
components of emotions
- physiological activation
- similarities and differences
- behavioural expression
- motivational states
- subjective experience
physiological activation (emotions)
emotions are linked with physiological changes in our bodies/brains
–> help us deal with the situation
behavioural expression (emotions)
when we feel an emotion, we express it on our faces and bodies (non-verbal communication)
motivational states(emotions)
emotions are motivating –> they direct and energize our behaviours
subjective experience (emotions)
being aware and conscious we are feeling something
maladaptive emotions
when they are overexaggerated and make it difficult to function in a healthy way
2 categories of emotions
VALENCE: how pleasant/unpleasant an emotion is
AROUSAL: the degree to which our bodies are aroused when we experience emotions
emodiversity
important to experience a variety of emotions to be healthier
emotional contagion
we get infected by other people’s emotions
–> tend to mimic facial expressions and body language
emotions vs. mood
EMOTIONS: feelings we have towards an object or event → short-lived states that correspond to situational events
MOODS: longer-lasting, less-intense states → not affected by a specific object or event
ex. characterized why someone might feel cheerful for a few days for no obvious reason
Darwin’s principles of emotions
- principle of serviceable habits
- principle of antithesis
- the actions (constitution of the N.S)
principle of serviceable habits (darwin)
why we make the facial expressions we do
–> ancestors made an expression based on a situation –> since it was helpful, they became habits and via evolution they were transmitted to us
principle of antithesis (darwin)
when we’re happy, we express the opposite of what we express when we are sad
actions (consitution) of the NS (darwin)
because of the arousal of our body
–> bodies become too aroused and we need to release that energy –> why we have a random outburst
james and lange
COMMON SENSE:
See the stimulus 🡪 Behavioural expression 🡪 Subjective experience of fear
book: Preserve the stimulus 🡪 Acknowledge 🡪 Expression
cannon and bard
THALAMIC THEORY OF EMOTIONS
We see a snake 🡪 We’re going to run away, feel afraid, and our hearts are going to beat fast. We’re going to experience ALL THREE simultaneously but independently from each other.
What structure in the brain mediates emotional reactions to stimuli and to what other part of the brain does it report its findings? (Cannon and Bard)
THALAMUS mediates these emotional reactions and reports back to the CORTEX
- many bodily changes occur in conjunction with emotions → if the brain could no longer communicate with facial muscles to display emotions, the rest of the body would still express the emotion
- bodily changes are not a necessary middle step to produce an emotional experience
john watson
quite a bit of our emotions are learned
–> learned via classical conditioning
–>little albert –> white rat associated with noise
2 factors of how we react emotionally
- PHYLOGENY: we are biologically prepared to fear/learn very fast towards any stimulus that threaten us
- ONTOGENY: our own personal experiences, and history –> determine how we respond to life emotionally
interoceptive stimuli
sensations we experience within our own bodies
ex. nausea, headache
orosensory stimuli
sensations we experience in our mouths when we consume something
postingestive stimuli
sensations we experience in our bodies AFTER we ingest food/frinks
ex. heartburn
conditioned taste aversion
tastes of the foods we consume could become linked and associated with a variety of stimuli via classical conditioning
ex. u get food poisoning and can’t eat the specific food for a whiel
when we are hungry:
eat the right amount and don’t overeat –> feel satisfied
–> these sensations via classical conditioning become linked to the taste of the foods –> more likely to eat them next time
when we are not hungry:
not hungry but we eat anyways –> can experience nausea/bloating
–> sensations become linked with the taste for the food we ate –> less likely to eat them in the future
hermaphrodites
organisms that can be both male and female –> can be a mother and a father
highly adaptive
2 types of hermaphrodites
SEQUENTIAL, SIMULTANEOUS
sequential hemaphrodites
organism starts as being female, later (if needed) organism turns into a male and vice versa
simultaneous hermaphrodites
organism that has both male and female reproductive systems
pheromones
powerful chemical signals released by organisms
–> influence and affect behaviour of other organisms
–> can change physiology of another organism
the whitten effect
take female mice with different menstrual cycles and put them into the same cage
–> expose them to a male mouse/smell of his urine
–> pheromone from male mouse syncs their cycles
the bruce effect
pregnant female in early stages of pregnancy –> exposed to male mouse/his urine
–> pheromones can lead to abortion of the embryo
coolidge effect
revival of sexual desire in an animal that is satiated/not interest in having sex bc of the presence of a new sexual partner/location
HABITUATION: repeated exposure to a stimulus that isn’t a threat
–> we don’t respond to it
DISHABITUATION: responding again to a stimulus we have habituated to
who is likely to experience the coolidge effect
females
mate poaching
when we go after someone who is already in a relationship with someone else
sexual jealousy
likely (and normal) to feel jealous when we feel someone might steal out partner/partner is interested in someone else
difference between a man’s and woman’s jealousy
men: sexual jealousy
women: emotional jealousy
rivalry sensitivity hypothesis
Both men and women will try to stop the possibility of cheating
–> women: put their attention around other women in front of partner
–> men: try to control their women
overarching theories
processes that energize, direct, and sustain our behaviours
motivational intensity theory
- hoe much time/energy/effort we put into something depends on how important it is to us/how difficult it is
- effort must not be wasted
drive reduction theory (Hull)
basic psychological needs:
needs not met –> tension builds up –> motivated to get rid of it –> get rid of behaviour that would satisfy the need
body goes into homeostasis when the need it met
–> more intense –> more motivated
premack principle
We make the preferred activity contingent on the least preferred one, it becomes a condition
ex. “unless i study, i can’t play video games”
response deprivation hypothesis
the activity, preferred or not, that we engage in on a regular basis can be used to reinforce the low probability activity
–>Gaining more access to the activity is contingent on doing the low probability activity.
motivating operations
stimuli/events in our environment that could either increase/decrease the value of the reinforcer
–> therefore increase/decrease probability of a behaviour
- establishing operations
- abolishing operations
establishing operations
stimuli that are going to INCREASE the value of a reinforcer
–> more likely for us to engage in the behaviour
abolishing operations
stimuli in environment that are going to DECREASE the value of a reginforcer
–> decrease probability that behavior will take place
need to belong
we are born with the need to belong and form long-lasting emotional bonds and relationships
advantages of the need to belong
tend to be physically and mentally healthier
–> pursue more challenging goals and less likely to take drugs
disadvantages of the need to belong
makes us prone to physical and mental illnesses
–> less likely to pursue challenging goeals, more likely to get addicted to drugs
ostracism
extreme form of rejection where we intentionally and purposefully treat someone as if they don’t exist
–> even a little exposure to this is linked with depression, anxiety, etc.
diff responses to ostracism
- some people will get super mad and aggressive
- some people tend to work harder to get other to accept them
- some withdraw and shut down
maslows hierarchy of needs
we’re motivated bt both physiological and psychological needs
–> some needs must be met before others
BOTTOM TO TOP:
- physiological
- safety
- love/belonging
- esteem
- self-actualization
achievement motivation
we’re driven by a strong desire to accomplish a lot, excel, matser, overcome challenges, and outperform others
correlated with people who accomplish much more in life
IQ vs self-discipline
academic success = how self-disciplined you are, not IQ
self-discipline is a skill
2 types of motivation
- INTRISTIC motivation: when we do something because we love it
- EXTRINSIC motivation: when we something to get something else
