Midterm 2 Flashcards
What is attentions
perceptual, cognitive, and motor activities that establish limits to our performance of motor skills
Filter theories (bottleneck theories)
Difficulty doing multiple tasks at one time because of the inability to serially process multiple stimuli
Central resource capacity theories of attention
Attention capacity theories that propose one central source of attentional resources for which all activities requiring attention compete
Kahnemans attention theory
Views attention as cognitive effort which he relates to the mental resources needed to carry out specific activities
-determined by persons arousal level
Three rules that people use to allocate attention resources when performing multiple tasks
ALWAYS EMMA MEG
- Allocate attention to ensure completion of at least one task
- Enduring dispositions: involuntary attention to two types of characteristics of events
- Momentary intentions - allocate attention according to specific intentions
Attentional focus
Directing attention to specific aspects of our performance or performance environment
Width of focus
Focus can be broad or narrow
Direction of focus
Focus can be external or internal
Attention switching
Changing of attentional focus
Action effect hypothesis
Proposes that actions are best planned and controlled by their intended effects
Common coding view
Predicts that actions will be more effective when they are planned in terms of their intended outcomes
Automaticity
Performance of a skill with little to no demand on attention capacity
Visual selective attention
Term used to refer to detection and selection of performance related information in the performance environment
What is the relationship between eye movements and visual attention
It’s possible to direct visual attention to an environmental feature without looking directly at it.
Visual search and intended actions
Performer looks for specific cues in performance environment that will enable him or her to achieve a specific action goal
Visual search and intended actions example
Focus of initial eye movements differed when participants in their experiment were told to point or grasp an object
Feature integration theory
Initial visual search is based on specific features such as colour or shape
-selection of features of interest occurs when person focuses the attentional spotlight on the master map of all features
Visual search picks up info that influences what three aspects of action control process
- Action selection
- Constraining of selected action
- Timing of action initiation
Three phases of tennis serve
Ritual phase
Preparatory phase
Execution phase
The quiet eye
Amount of time devoted to final fixation just before movement initiation
2 functional systems for memory
- Working memory
- Long term memory
3 memory functions
- Store info
- Retrieval of info
- System specific functions
Working memory subtypes
Phonological loop
Visuospatial sketchpad
Central executive
Long term memory subtypes
Procedural memory
Semantic memory
Episodic memory
What is performance
Observable behaviour
Temporary
Might not be due to practice
Influenced by performance variables
What is learning
Inferred from performance
Relatively permanent
Due to practice
Not influenced by performance variables
6 Characteristics of skill learning
Improvement
Consistency
Stability
Persistence
Adaptability
Reduction in attention demand
6 ways in which we assess motor learning
- Observing practice performance
- Performance curves for outcome measures
- Retention tests
- Retention tests
- Transfer tests
- Coordination dynamics
- Dual task procedure
Performance curves
Line graph describing performance in which level of achievement of a performance measure is plotted for a specific sequence of time
- provide evidence of improvement and increased performance consistency
4 general types of performance curves
Linear
Negatively accelerated
Positively accelerated
Olive or s shaped
T or F: kinematic measures are difficult to present in performance curves
T
Retention tests
How much info u can retain
Purpose of retention tests
Assess permanence or persistence of performance level achieved during practice
Transfer test
Assesses adaptability of what was learned in practice
-involves performing the practiced skill in a novel situation or context
Examples of transfer test
Availability of augmented feedback
Physical environment
Personal characteristics of test taker
Coordination dynamics involves what
-measurement and observation of movement coordination characteristics
- transition from initial movement coordination pattern to establishment of new coordination pattern
Dual task procedure
Means of determining if changes in attention demands for a skill change as a learner becomes more skillful
What three stages does fitts and posners three stage model involve
Cognitive stage
Associative stage
Autonomous stage
Cognitive stage (fitts and posner model)
Beginner focuses on solving cognitively oriented
problems related to what to do and how to do it.
Associative stage (fitts and posners model)
Person has learned to associate environmental information with required movements to achieve
the goal of the skill.
-refining stage
Autonomous stage (fitts and posners model)
Final stage where performance of the skill is
“automatic”, or habitual.
Gentiles two stage model - what are the two stages
Learner works to achieve two goals (initial stage)
Learner works to achieve three goals (later stages)
Gentiles two stage model- initial stage
Acquire a movement pattern to enable some degree of success achieving the action goal of the skill
Discriminate between regulatory and nonregulatory conditions in the environmental context in which he or she performs the skill.
Gentiles two stage model - later stages
- Adapting movement pattern to demands of performance situation requiring that skill
- Increasing consistency in achieving goal of skill
- Performing skill with economy of effort
Unique features about gentiles two stage model
Closed skills
Open skills
Closed skills- gentiles two stage model
Require fixation of movement coordination pattern
Learner must refine this pattern so that he or she
can allow consistent action goal achievement.
Open skills- gentiles two stage model
Require diversification of the basic
movement pattern.
Develop flexible movement pattern that can adapt
to the continuously changing spatial and temporal
regulatory conditions of the skill.
Bernstein description of learning process
Proposed that learning a skill was similar to solving a problem
Likened skill acquisition to staging a play, with many phases.
Described appropriate practice as a form of repetition without repetition.
Procedural memory
Let’s us know “how to do” something instead of “what to do”
Semantic memory
Stores out general knowledge about the world based upon experiences
-conceptual knowledge
Episodic memory
Allows us to mentally go back in time
Declarative knowledge
Knowledge about what to do in a situation that is verbalizable
Procedural knowledge
Knowledge that enables one to actually perform a skill
-not verbalizable
What is encoding
Memory process of transforming to be remembered info into a form that can be stored in memory
What is storage
Process of placing info into long term memory
What is rehearsal
Process that enables a person to transfer information from working to long term memory
What is retrieval
Process of searching through long term memory for info needed for present use
What are the two explicit memory tests
Recall test
Recognition test
What are the benefits of recall and recognition tests
Each provides different info about what has been remembered or forgotten
What is an implicit memory test
Assesses implicit memory by asking a person to verbally describe how to perform a skill and then asking them to perform it
3 causes of forgetting
Trace decay
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference
T or F: movement end point location is remembered better than movement distance
T
Visual metaphoric imagery
Person thinks of producing a metaphorical image related to movement. Ex: apple picking can be similar to side stroke in swimming
What is subjective organization
Organizing routines into units or groups of movements
Encoding specificity principle
relationship between memory encoding and retrieval memory process
Common characteristics of experts in all skill performance areas
- Amount and type of practice that resulted in expertise (coaching)
- Knowledge structure
- Use of vision
What is transfer of learning
Influence of previous experience on learning a new skill and performing a skill in a new context
Transfer of learning can result in what 3 things
Positive transfer
Negative transfer
Neutral (0)
What is positive transfer
Using skill you already have and transferring it to a new skill
What is negative transfer
Old skill cant be adapted to new skill
What is neutral or zero
Motor learning doesn’t change based on other skills
Why is transfer of learning important
-used to develop skill progressions in coaching and physical education contexts
-assesses effectiveness of practice conditions
Why does positive transfer occur
- Similarity of skill and context components
- Similarity of processing requirements
When does negative transfer occur
-when environmental context characteristics of two performance situations are similar but movement characteristics are different
-driving on opp side of road
3 reasons negative transfer occurs
- Perception action coupling becomes problematic when familiar perceptual situation requires a movement thats different from what was learned
- Results from cognitive confusion
- Learners intrinsic dynamics compete w required task dynamics
Learning how to learn example
During school, we learn how to cope with new material
Bilateral transfer
Transfer of learning between 2 limbs
Asymmetric transfer
Greater transfer from one limb than from the other limb
Symmetric transfer
Amount of transfer is similar from one limb to another regardless of which was used first
bilateral transfer - cognitive explanation
basis for positive transfer from a practiced to non practiced limb is the cognitive info related to what to do in order to achieve the goal of a skill
bilateral transfer - motor control explanation
generalized motor program and dynamic pattern theories both provide a basis for bilateral transfer
2 reasons bilateral transfer occurs
cognitive explantation
motor control explanation
interhemispheric transfer
EMG activity occurs for contralateral limbs, a lesser amount occurs for ipsilateral limbs, and lease amount occurs for diagonal limbs
what is demonstration
visual observation on the part of the learner
when is demonstration more effective
when observer perceives invariant relative motions of the coordinated movement pattern
what information should be conveyed by a demonstration
coordination changes
end point information
differences in how movement is organized vs controlled
does the skill require acquisition of a new pattern of coordination
why is it important for demonstrator to show skill correctly
if observer perceives and uses info related to invariant movement patterns, u can expect quality of performance resulting from observing a demo to be related to the quality of the demo
why is it that beginners can benefit from watching other beginners practice a skill
discourages imitation of a skilled models performance and encourages observer to engage in more active problem solving
Gentiles implications for demonstrating a skill
- demonstration should come before practice
- instructor should keep demonstrating during practice as often as needed
what is auditory modeling
moving within a movement time or certain rhythm
cognitive mediation theory
observed movements are translated into a symbolic memory code that forms basis thats used to guide performance
dynamic view of modeling
visual system picks up from the model salient info that constrains body and limbs to act in specific ways
potential downsides to demonstration
- there wont be an ideal movement form that works for everyone
- giving learners other peoples solutions can subvert problem solving
- watching skilled performers can foster a potentially dangerous illusion of skill acquisition
important things when developing effective verbal communication
-amount of instruction
-memory
-attention limits
-focusing on movement outcomes
-use analogies
verbal cues should be what
short and concise phrases that:
- direct performers attention to regulatory conditions in environmental context
- prompt key movement components of skills
what are the two types of performance related feedback
task intrinsic feedback
augmented feedback
task intrinsic feedback
sensory info thats naturally available when performing a skill
augmented feedback
performance related info thats added to task intrinsic feedback
-from external source
subcategories of augmented feedback
knowledge of results
knowledge of performance
subcategories of task intrinsic feedback
visual
auditory
proprioceptive
tactile
knowledge of results (KR) & example
externally presented information about outcome of an attempt to perform a skill
-finishing time in 400m
knowledge of performance (KP) & example
gives info about movement characteristics that led to performance outcome
-running form and strat used in 400m
2 roles of augmented feedback
- facilitates achievement of action goal of skill
- motivates learner to keep striving toward goal
5 issues related to augmented feedback
- info about errors vs correct aspects of performance
- KR vs KP
- qualitative vs quantitative info
- augmented feedback based on error size
- erroneous augmented feedback
5 types of KP
- verbal (descriptive, prescriptive)
- manual guidance
- video replay
- movement kinetics and kinematics
- biofeedback
concurrent augmented feedback
augmented feedback given while person is doing the skill
it can:
-have a negative effect on learning
-enhance skill learnign
terminal augmented feedback
given after person has finished the performance of skill
two intervals of time - terminal augmented feedback
KR delay interval
post KR interval
freq of presenting augmented feedback - traditional view
aug feedback should be given during or after ever practice trial because no learning occurred on trials without augmented feedback
freq of presenting augmented feedback - contemporary view
optimal frequency for giving augmented feedback isnt 100p
techniques that reduce frequency of augmented feedback
- performance based bandwidths
- self selected frequency
- summary and averaged augmented feedback
what is practice variability
variety of movement and context characteristics a person experiences while practicing a skill
variable vs constant practice
variability benefits future performance involves comparing effects on retention or transfer test performance of practice situations involving one variation of a skill w those involving several variations of the skill
how to implement practice variability
assess characteristics of future situations in which learner will perform a skill
closed skills and ex
vary non regulatory conditions (ex: darts)
closed skills w inter trial variability and ex
vary regulatory and non regulatory conditions (ex: gold drive)
open skills and ex
vary regulatory and non regulatory conditions ex: soccer match
3 types of practice conditions
blocked practice
random practice
serial practice
contextual interference
memory and performance disruption that results from performing variations of a skill within the context of practice
contextual interference effect
happens when a high amount of contextual interference results in better learning
what is metacognition
practice performance influences learners judgement about how much theyre learning depending on which practice schedule they experienced
limits of CI effect
doesnt apply to all motor skill learning sits
challenge point hypothesis
proposed implementation of specific practice conditions that will optimally challenge the person in a way that will enhance skill learning
lower levels of contextual interference
optimal for difficult skills and for lil kids
higher levels of contextual interference
optimal for skills w lowest difficulty
less optimal for skills w highest difficulty
more effective for more skilled individuals
elaboration hypothesis
high CI leads to more elaborate memory representation of practiced skill variations
action plan reconstruction hypothesis
high amounts of CI leads to stronger memory representation bc of forgetting and subsequent action plan reconstruction during practice
why does CI effect occur
- higher levels of CI involve greater attention demands during practice than low levels
- ppl who practice according to a blocked schedule ten to overestimate how well they are learning during practice
- higher levels of contextual interference encourage ppl to make more errors
specificity of practice hypothesis
view that motor skill learning is influenced by practice condition characteristics
practice specificity hypothesis concerns which 3 characteristics of motor skill learning and performance
- sensory/perceptual characteristics
- performance context characteristics
- cognitive processing characteristics
especial skills and ex
skill variations performed markedly better than similar variations
-shooting from free throw
-pitching from normal distance
