midterm 2 Flashcards
1
Q
___ is related to consciousness but its a seperate phenomenon.
A
Attention
2
Q
___ is the gate keeper of consciousness. It selects and enhances relevant info and ignores irrelevant/uninformative info
A
Attention
3
Q
Isolation Aphasia
what is it?
what does it result from?
A
brain disorder related to conscious processing resulting from brain trauma
that isolates speech mechanism form other parts of brain (broca’s and wernicke’s area)
4
Q
Isolation Aphasia
symptoms
A
intact speech production mechanism and connections with auditory cortex
- can repeat speech but no evidence of conscious behavior (no comprehension)
- no indication of awareness of their environment
5
Q
Blindsight
what is it?
A
brain disorder related to conscious processing resulting from brain trauma
( damage to primary visual cortex)
6
Q
Blindsight - the ability to?
A
utilize visual information despite a complete lack of awareness of seeing
7
Q
Split Brain
results when?
A
results when corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres of the brain is severed
(2 hemispheres isolated)
(usually as treatment for severe epilepsy)
8
Q
Split Brain studies
A
patients tested for separate abilities of left and right hemispheres using visual and manual tasks
(left hand -> RH - unable to name and describe objects)
9
Q
Hypnosis
A
systematic procedure involving deep relaxation which tends to promote a heightened state of suggestibility
10
Q
What % of pop’n is highly hypnotizable?
A
10%
11
Q
Hypnosis weakly related to capacity to?
A
suspend reality and become involved in imaginative activities
12
Q
Observed effects under hypnosis (4)
A
1) anesthesia
2) sensory distortions and hallucinations
3) disinhibition
4) posthypnotic suggestions and amnesia
13
Q
2 Theories of Consciousness
A
1) social role playing
2) altered state of consciousness
14
Q
social role-playing OF HYPNOSIS
A
people act out the role of a hypnotic subject and behave accordingly (bias effect, conformity, suspension of self-control)
(behave as they are expected to)
15
Q
Evidence of Theory of Social Role Playing (3)
A
(1) -no change in pattern of EEG activity
(2) -non-hypnotized subjects can be induced to perfom same behaviours
(3) - recovery of memory very unreliable
16
Q
Evidence of Theory of Altered State of Consciousness (3)
A
1) effects of anesthesia
2) dissociation
3) divided consciousness common under normal conditions
17
Q
Dissociation
A
a splitting off of mental processes into two separate, simultaneous streams of awareness
18
Q
Different ___ ___ related to characteristic stages of activity
A
EEG patterns
19
Q
EEG patterns for: AWAKE
A
beta
high frequency
low amplitude
20
Q
EEG patterns for: RELAXED
A
alpha
medium frequency
medium amplitude
21
Q
EEG patterns for: LIGHT SLEEP
A
STAGE 1 & 2
theta
low frequency
medium amplitude
22
Q
EEG patterns for: DEEP SLEEP
A
STAGE 3 & 4
delta
low frequency
high amplitude
23
Q
EEG patterns for: AWAKE and ALERT
A
HIGH frequency, LOW amplitude
24
Q
EEG patterns for: DEEP SLEEP
A
LOW frequency, HIGH amplitude
25
REM sleep
RAPID EYE MOVEMENT
| - dreaming
26
Sleep acts to ?
| (2) other purposes
reduce stimulation of brain
- restorative (protein synthesis)
integrate new with old
27
Sleep cycle controlled by?
BRAC - basic rest-activity cycle
| controlled by hindbrain
28
Consciousness
subjective experience of world, our bodies and our mental perspectives
29
increased ____ in the brain occurs during REM sleep when most ___ appears to occur
stimulation
| dreaming
30
Purpose of dreams - 2 aspects
physiological
| psychological
31
Physiological purpose of dreams
pons sends activation to the cerebrum
interpreter attempts to create meaning from random activation of different areas of the brain
(content of dreams meaningless)
32
Psychological purpose of dreams
expression of unconscious activities, inner conflicts, and desires
(We can analyze dreams as window to unconscious)
33
Purpose of dreams: Both Physiological and Psychological?
pons sends activation, but previously activated experiences still remain most highly activated and interpreter utilizes this information
34
insomnia:
trouble falling asleep, waking too early, waking up in middle of night and having trouble falling back asleep
35
REM sleep behaviour disorder
absence of paralysis while dreaming
36
narcolepsy:
direct REM-like onset with paralysis,
| can be associated with emotional states
37
sleepwalking (somnambulism):
slow-wave sleep
| - walking while fully asleep
38
enuresis (bed-wetting)
stage 3 sleep
| involuntary urination while asleep after the age at which bladder control usually occurs
39
night terrors
stage 4 awakening
| - sudden, partial arousal associated with emotional outbursts, fear, and motor activity
40
learning:
a relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience
- CHANGE in organisms behaviour or thought as a result of experience
41
habituation:
tendency to discontinue responding to repeatedly occurring uninformative events
- process of responding less strongly over time to repeated stimuli
42
Classical conditioning
form of learning:
a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus by pairing it with this stimulus
43
Classical conditioning also known as
Respondent/Pavlovian
| stimulus-stimulus learning (association b/w 2 stimuli)
44
In Classical Conditioning - previously unimportant stimuli takes on?
symbolic value
| NS -> CS
45
Classical conditioning - Stage 1
UCS -> UCR
| NS -> no effect
46
Classical conditioning - Stage 2
NS paired closely in time with UCS that elicits an automatic/ reflexive response: UCR
47
Classical conditioning - Stage 3
CS (previous NS) elicits CR as a result of assocation with an UCS
48
UCS
upon presentation evokes response called UCR
49
NS
initially evokes no response when presented alone
| paired continuously with UCS
50
Eventually NS becomes?
CS once it produces a CR
51
Forward, delayed conditioning
NS onset before UCS onset (0.5 seconds)
| most efficient conditioning
52
conditioning is said to occur when ...
CR appears before UCS onset
53
3 phases of Classical Conditioning
acquisition
extinction
spontaneous recovery
54
Acquisition
gradually learn/acquire CR
| as CS + UCS are paired over and over again, CR increases progressively
55
Extinction
(when UCS no longer follows CS, strength of CR decreases to zero)
CS alone and CR declines
56
Spontaneous Recovery
CR reappears are period of delay even when UCS is still not presented
- less intense, return to baseline faster
57
Stimulus Generalization
process by which CS similar but no identical to original CS elicit CR
58
Stimulus Discrimination
process by which organisms display less pronounced CR to CS that differ from original CS
59
Generalization Gradient
stimuli closer to the CS produce a higher probability of a CR
60
Conditioned emotional responses
emotional response that results from classical conditioning and VERY resistant to extinction
usually from association with NS with painful/fearful experience
61
Fetish
| an example of?
unusual sexual attachment to objects
Conditioned emotional response
62
Conditioned fear Response
| example
phobias - unreasonable fear of objects or situations
| (classical conditioning
63
Operant Conditioning
learning controlled by consequences of organisms behavior
64
Law of Effect
if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and response is strengthened
65
Operant Conditioning
| 3-term contingency:
1) discriminative stimulus: sets the occasion for a response
2) operant behaviour: response
3) consequence: contingency of behaviour
66
Operant Conditioning
| What determines behavior?
consequences of S-R relationships
67
reinforcement occurs when
an event following a response INCREASES an organism’s tendency to make the same response in the presence of the stimulus in the future
68
punishment occurs when
an event following a response DECREASES an organism’s tendency to make the same response in the presence of the stimulus in the future
69
positive reinforcement:
discriminative stimulus increases frequency of behaviour:
| presentation of appetitive (+) stimulus or + stimulus
70
negative reinforcement:
discriminative stimulus increases frequency of behaviour:
| removal of an aversive(-) stimulus or - reinforcer (consequence)
71
positive punishment:
discriminative stimulus decreases frequency of behaviour:
| presentation of an aversive stimulus or punisher (consequence)
72
negative punishment or response cost:
discriminative stimulus decreases frequency of behaviour:
| removal of an appetitive stimulus
73
Frequency of behaviour
1) reinforcement
2) punishment
1) increase
| 2) decrease
74
how is behaviour influenced?
1) reinforcement
a) +
b) -
2) punishment
a) +
b) -
```
1.
a) + stimulus presented
b) - stimulus removed
2.
a) - stimulus presented
b) + stimulus removed
```
75
shaping (acquisition)
the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response
(conditioning target behavior by progressively reinforcing behaviors that come closer and closer to target)
76
extinction
behaviour decreases because the reinforcer or behavioural contingency is removed
77
resistance to extinction occurs when ?
responses persist without reinforcement
78
generalization and discrimination occur with respect to the?
discriminative stimulus
79
primary reinforcers and punishers:
```
item or outcome that naturally increases target behavior
biological needs (food, pain, fear)
```
80
conditioned reinforcers and punishers: (secondary)
become associated with primary needs (money, flashing light of police car)
- mechanism of association is CLASSICAL conditioning
(neutral object that becomes associated with primary reinforcer)
81
Schedules of Reinforcement
| - Continuous
reinforce behavior every time it occurs
82
Schedules of Reinforcement
| - Intermittent
reinforce responses only some of the time
83
(2) types of INTERMITTENT reinforcement
Interval
| Ratio
84
INTERMITTENT reinforcement
1) Interval
2) Ratio
1) reinforcement based on intervals of time
| 2) reinforcement provided after a certain # of responses
85
fixed ratio:
pattern in which we provide reinforcement after a fixed number of non-reinforced trials (FR-10, after every 10 responses, FR-1 is continuous)
86
variable ratio:
pattern in which we provide reinforcement after unpredictable # of responses but on average occurs after some number of non-reinforced trials (VR-10, on average reinforcement once every 10 trials)
87
fixed interval:
reinforcement occurs for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed (FI-10, after every 10 minutes)
88
variable interval:
reinforcement occurs for 1st response that occurs after an unpredictable time interval which varies around a predetermined average (VI-10, unpredictable but on average after every 10 minutes)
89
fixed ratio:
high rate of responding, pause after reinforcement, low resistance to extinction
90
variable ratio:
high rate of responding, no pause after reinforcement, high resistance to extinction
91
Complex Behaviours (2)
Escape learning
| Avoidance learning
92
Escape Learning
response that decreases or ends aversive stimulation
(- reinforcement)
- turning on AC
93
Avoidance learning
response that prevents aversive stimulation from occurring (resistant to extinction)
- turn on AC before room gets hot
94
Stimulus Generalization:
a) In CLASSICAL conditioning:
b) in OPERANT conditioning:
a) elicitation of response by stimuli similar to original CS
b) the increased probability of responding in presence of stimuli similar to original
95
Acquisition:
a) In CLASSICAL conditioning:
b) in OPERANT conditioning:
learning phase during which:
a) CR is established
b) operant response is established
96
Extinction:
a) In CLASSICAL conditioning:
b) in OPERANT conditioning:
a) gradual reduction and eventual elimination of CR after CS is presented repeatedly by itself
b) gradual reduction and eventual elimination of operant response when reinforcement for that response is no longer presented
97
Spontaneous Recovery
a) In CLASSICAL conditioning:
b) in OPERANT conditioning:
sudden emergence of extinguished
a) CR
b) operant response
are a delay following extinction
98
Stimulus Discrimination
a) In CLASSICAL conditioning:
b) in OPERANT conditioning:
Displaying less pronounced response to stimuli that differ from original
a) CS
b) discriminative stimulus
99
+ Reinforcement Example
completion of hmwrk assignments INCREASES when followed by praise
100
- Reinforcement Example
use of aspirin increases when followed by reduction of headache pain
101
+ Punishment Example
nail biting decreases when followed by taste of bitter substance painted on nails
102
- Punishment Example
parking in a no parking zone decreases when followed by loss of money
103
Schedule of Reinforcement
pattern of delivering reinforcement
104
Two Process Theory
Classical + Operant Conditioning
105
To explain persistance of anxiety disorder we need ...
both Classical and Operant conditioninh according to Two-Process Theory
106
Phobias are acquired how?
by means of CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
107
Once phobias are acquired by means of CLASSICAL conditioning, how does OPERANT conditioning play a role?
they avoid feared stimulus
- negative reinforcement b/c reduction of anxiety when they avoid it
- extinction cant occur b/c person is never exposed to CS
-
108
DIfference between Classical and Operant:
| behavior
Classical: involuntary/reflexive
Operant: voluntary
109
Two-Process Theory SUMMARY
Classical: CS -> CR (fear)
Operant: avoidance response - removes CR = (-) reinforcement
110
conditioned flavor-aversion learning:
refers to fact that classical conditioning can lead us to develop avoidance reactions to taste of food
association of a substance’s flavor with illness
111
Classical vs. Conditioned Flavor-aversion learning
- # of trials
Classical - requires repeated pairing b/w CS and UCS
| CFAL - typically requires only one trial to develop
112
Classical vs. Conditioned Flavor-aversion learning
delay
CFAL - delay b/w UC and UCS can be as long as 6-8 hours
113
Classical vs. Conditioned Flavor-aversion learning
- specificity
CFAL - remarkably specific
| - display LITTLE evidence of stimulus generalization
114
Garcia and Koelling (1966)
| helped to demonstrate?
biological influences on conditioned taste aversions
115
Garcia and Koelling (1966)
| - experiment
Rats
exposed to XRAYS which caused NAUSEA
- developed conditioned aversion to specific taste but not to specific visual/auditory stimuli
exposed to SHOCK
aversion to auditory/visual stimuli rather than taste
116
Garcia and Koelling (1966) experiments showed that?
evolutionary preparedness to readily form some associations and not others
animals more easily develop conditioned aversions to stimuli that tend to trigger nausea in real world
117
Wilcoxin, Dragoin and Kral (1971)
quail prepared for colour, not taste
118
blocking:
a stimulus paired with a UCS fails to become a CS because it is redundant with an established CS
example:
if noise is paired with shock, and then we add in light with noise before shock, the light alone wont produce a conditioned response
119
Blocking
| conditioning is ___ and we ignore __ __
active
| redundant info
120
Blocking
| evidence for __-__ interpretation of ___ conditioning
S-S
| classical
121
Blocking
| connection b/w....
CS and mental representation of UCS (not CR)
122
observational learning:
organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others referred to as models
- reinforcement/punishment experienced by others not you (you learn from their experience)
123
observational learning:
| what type of conditioning?
both classical and operant conditioning
124
Procedure of:
| Classical Conditioning
NS paired with UCS
125
Procedure of:
| Operant Conditioning
behaviour is followed by consequence of reinforcement or punishment
126
Result of:
| Classical Conditioning
NS becomes CS
| and elicits CR
127
Result of:
| Operant Conditioning
behavior increases/decreases in frequency
128
memory
process of retaining info over time
| retention of info over time
129
(3) major processes of MEMORY
1) encoding
2) storage
3) retrieval
130
Encoding
translation of the physical stimulation into a cognitive code that is used by the memory system (usually requires attention)
131
Storage
maintenance of cognitive codes in memory over time
132
Encoding refers to process of ...
getting info into our memory
133
To encode something, we first must...
attend to it
134
Storage refers to process of...
keeping info in memory
135
How we store our experiences in memory depend on?
our interpretations and expectations of these events
136
retrieval:
recovery of cognitive codes from memory (remembering)
| reactivation or reconstruction of experiences from memory stores
137
Free-recall Task
report as many items from a list of words in ANY order (that have been rehearsed aloud)
138
Serial-position effect:
```
consistent curve (U-shaped) observed for list recall (displays primacy&recency effects)
- refers to findings that recall accuracy varies with items position on study list
```
139
primacy effect:
tendency to remember items near the beginning of the list (recalled better than other items)
140
recency effect:
tendency to remember items near the end of the list (are recalled better than other items)
141
Sensory Memory
temporary storage of perceptual input for initial memory encoding
(brief storage of perceptual info before it is passed to short-term memory)
142
Sensory memory
| a) Encoding
a) modality specific (each sense has its own form of sensory memory)
143
Sensory Memory
b) storage
c) retrieval
b) high capacity
very short duration (0.5-4 secs depending on modality)
c) attentional
144
Decay
Memory fades with passage of time
145
Interference
forgetting as a result of additional stimuli coming in
146
(2) types of Sensory Memory
1) Iconic - visual SM
| 2) Echoic - auditory SM
147
Working Memory
current processing and manipulation of cognitive codes (conscious processing)
(memory system that retains info for limited duration)
148
Working Memory
| a) Encoding
phonological - language based sounds
| visual, spatial - images and objects location relative to each other
149
Working Memory
| b) storage
capacity: 5-9 items
duration: less than 30 secs w/o rehearsal
150
Working Memory
| c) retrieval
elaborative rehearsal - linking stimuli to each other in meaningful way to improve retention of info in STM
151
```
Working Memory
divided into (3) components:
```
articulatory rehearsal loop
visuo-spatial sketch pad
executive control system
152
Working Memory
| forgetting
interference/decay
153
Long Term Memory
permanent memory of information represented in the brain
154
Long Term Memory
| a) encoding
several forms
155
Long Term Memory
| b) storage
```
episodic
semantic
procedural
capacity- unlimitied
duration - permanent
```
156
1) episodic
chronological, temporally dated, recollections of personal experience (info about when you did things)
RECOLLECTION OF EVENTS IN OUR LIVES
157
2) semantic
our knowledge about facts not tied to time
| - facts of the world
158
3) procedural
memory for actions, skills and operation
159
Long Term Memory
| c) retrieval
reconstructive - transforms recollections to fit our beliefs and expectations
160
Long Term Memory
| forgetting
```
retrieval failure - cant access
retrieval cues (hints that make it easier to recall info) can help
```
161
good example of retrieval failure
Tip of the tongue phenomenon : forgotten info just out of reach
162
interaction between systems occurs through __ ___ involving ___, ___ and ___
working memory
attention
retrieval
rehearsal
163
Iconic and Echoic memory
| - names reflect that the..
represenation is a raw sensory code
164
working memory is ___ ___
current thinking
165
Whole Report (WR)
identify all items
brief display
4-5 items on average
166
Partial Report (PR)
identify subset of items cued after offset of display
| - higher report at short cue intervals
167
PR = WR report after ...
about 0.5 sec
168
PR cannot cue for category (letters vs #) so?
raw sensory
169
Articulatory/Phonological Loop
part of working memory that deals with spoken and written material
- processing language based sounds
170
Working Memory: Predominant memory code
phonological - rehearsal mechanism
171
rehearsal based on neural mechanism referred to as
Articulatory/Phonological Loop
172
Articulatory/Phonological Loop - mechanism
acoustic image from Wernicke’s area passed to Broca’s area for subvocal articulation which refreshes acoustic image and forms the loop
173
Conduction Aphasia
connections between Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas damaged disrupting articulatory loop
- comprehension and talkin is fine, but cant repeat back what you say
174
Working Memory also involves manipulation of
visually based representations
175
Visual-Spatial Sketch Pad
proposed mechanism of working memory that utilizes visually based memory codes
176
mental rotation tasks indicate that..
visual representations are manipulated in an analog fashion
177
duration of codes in working memory less than ...
| Peterson & Peterson - 1959
30 sec without rehearsal
178
Working Memory has capacity of __±__ slots of unrelated items
7±2
179
chunking
| involves?
involves combining information into meaningful units occupying only one slot
- greater the semantic or rule integration with LTM the larger the chunks
180
___ or ___ acts as the main mechanism of forgetting from working memory
displacement or interference
181
what replaces existing contents of working memory?
thinking from one moment to the next
182
Long Term Memory
| generally assumed that increased ___ of items in working memory leads to ___ of material in __
rehearsal
encoding
LTM
183
Craik and Lockhart (1972) pointed out another critical factor that leads to encoding of material in LTM
(other than REHEARSAL)
Type of rehearsal
| Depth of Processing
184
maintenance rehearsal:
rote repetition
185
elaborative rehearsal and encoding:
integrating new information with existing information in LTM
186
levels of processing theory:
deeper levels of processing result in longer lasting memory codes
187
(3) levels of processing
1) Shallow
example?
1) (VISUAL) structural encoding (physical structure)
maintenance rehearsal
188
(3) levels of processing
| 2) Intermediate
2) phonemic - focus on what word sounds like
189
(3) levels of processing
3) Deep
example?
3) semantic - meaning of verbal input
elaborative rehearsal
190
Hyde and Jenkins (1969)
asked participants to study list of words by
shallow (count letters)
or deep (rating pleasantness of word) processing , and others asked to memorize for recall
- surprise recall test: shallow < deep = memorize
191
retrograde amnesia:
loss of memory for events PRIOR to occurrence of head trauma
192
anterograde amnesia:
loss of memory for events AFTER occurrence of head trauma
193
HM
no memories since 1953 (anterograde)
removal of hippocampus to relieve epileptic seizures
normal workin memory
has IMPLICIT but not EXPLICIT memory
194
Explicit memory
Intentional (conscious) recollection of previous experiences
| - recall, recognition
195
Examples of Explicit memory
Semantic
| Episodic
196
Implicit memory
incidental, unintentional (unconscious) remembering
| - word fragment, word stem
197
Examples of Implicit memory
Procedural
198
Explicit and Implicit
| Amnesic vs Normal
explicit: control > amnesic
implicit: control = amnesic
199
Graf and Mandler (1984)
study 6-letter word lists by
- counting # of letters
- evaluate likeability of each word
Stem completion task ( DEF _ _ _)
- use as a cue to remember words
- report 1st words that come to mind
200
Graf and Mandler (1984) studies show that (2)
depth influences explicit, not implicit
shallow processing: implicit > explicit
201
Declarative Memory
factual information based upon intentional retrieval (explicit)
202
(2) types of declarative memory
semantic memory: encyclopedic-> facts, conceptual information, vocabulary
episodic memory: autobiographical -> life experiences, temporal
203
___and __ interact in forming explicit memories
semantic and episodic
204
procedural memory:
skills and rules memory, primarily automatic or unintentional, implicit retrieval
anterograde amnesics learn new skills without awareness
earlier memory system
205
encoding specificity:
how we encode information determines our ability to retrieve it later
example:
during encoding, emphasis was on sound: sound retrieval cue
206
LTM is ___ dependent
context
207
encoding efficiency reliant upon __
context
208
retrieval efficiency reliant upon ...
match of cues to the memory code
209
good retrieval cues are...
consistent with the original encoding
210
tip-of-the–tongue phenomenon:
experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to access it
solved about 50% of the time, reflects the importance of appropriate retrieval cue
211
context dependent memory
| Godden & Baddeley (1975)
superior retrieval when external context of original memories matches retrieval context
(powerful effect of reinstating context of encoding for successful retrieval)
212
state-dependent memory:
improved recall when emotional state between encoding and retrieval matches
213
flashbulb memories
emotional memory that is extraordinarily vivid and detailed
episodic memory vividness associated with an emotional event
(vividness/confidence doesnt reflect accuracy)
214
Reconstructive Remembering:
recall from long-term memory involves a process of reconstruction involving current knowledge and biases
(understanding of world now influences recollection of past memories)
215
Loftus & Palmer 1974
subjects viewed event
exposed to information about event (some of which is misleading)
recall one week later: : speed estimates related to the force of impact suggested by the verb
216
Loftus & Palmer 1974
subjects viewed event
exposed to information about event (some of which is misleading)
recall one week later: : speed estimates related to the force of impact suggested by the verb
217
misinformation effect:
reconstructive distortions of memory occur in the presence of misleading cues
