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PSYCH 102 > midterm 1 > Flashcards

midterm 1 Flashcards

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Psychology 101 flashcards GRE® Psychology flashcards
1
Q

Psychology

A

scientific study of the causes of behaviour and associated mental processes

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2
Q

behaviour is multiply determined

A

produced by many factors (not just one)

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3
Q

__, ___, ___ behavior and mental processes using scientific method

A

observe
describe
explain

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4
Q

we measure behaviour because it can be quantified and verified and it is used as the…

A

outer sign of inner reality

- conscious experience and mental processing

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5
Q

empirical, verifiable facts

A

acquired by observation or experimentation

can be replicated

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6
Q

we measure behaviour to characterize…

A

conscious experience and mental processing

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7
Q

psychology includes many areas of study:

A

basic

applied

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8
Q

basic

A

description, explanation

no practical application

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9
Q

applied

A

prediction, control

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10
Q

behaviour studied at many different levels

A

micro - brain processes
molecular - responses of individual
molar - groups

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11
Q

2 groups psychologists classify factors responsible for behaviour

A

dispositional - personal, internal causes

situational - environmental/external

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12
Q

theses are closely related to…

A

nature vs nurture

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13
Q

Psychology is (3)

A

emperical - relying on/derived from observation
theoretically diverse - different levels of analysis
operates in sociohistorical context - psychologists investigate in things we care about/are popular

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14
Q

Behavior is (4)

A

1) multiply determined
2) shaped by cultural heritage (sociocultural)

3) determined by interaction b/w heredity + environment (nature versus nurture)
4) based on our highly subjective experiences

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15
Q

6 Theoretical Perspectives of Psychology

A 
Biological
Psychodynamic
Evolutionary
Humanistic 
Cognitive
Behavioural
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16
Q

Biological

A

neuroscience
physiological + biochemical processes
brain & CNS, biochemical basis of behavior & mental processes

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17
Q

Psychodynamic

A

unconscious motivation and early childhood experiences (play big role in who you are)
unconscious drives, motives, conflicts

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18
Q

Behaviourism

A

stimulus-response contingencies
stimulus conditions, overt responses, reinforcement contingencies

ONLY OBSERVED BEHAVIOUR

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19
Q

Cognitive

A

stimulus conditions and mental processes

mental processes inferred through behavioural indicators

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20
Q

Evolutionary

A

environmental pressures and adaptations

evolved behaviours and mental mechanisms

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21
Q

Humanistic

A

achievement of self-actualization

human potential, personal growth

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22
Q

Structuralism (def’n)

A

uses introspection to identify basic elements or structures of experience

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23
Q

Structuralism

  • who
  • what
  • examined..
  • used..
A

Wundt 1879 - developed 1st psych lab in Leipzig Germany
scientific study of the mind (consciousness)
components of consciousness
introspection

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24
Q

Introspection

A

careful reporting of inner sensations (mental processes)

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25
Q 
Functionalism 
- who 
- focus on..
- influenced by..
emphasized study of ...
A
  • James
  • functions/adaptive purposes of consciousness
  • Darwin
    mental operations: thinking produces useful behaviour
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26
Q

Behaviourism

  • who (4)
  • study
  • law of..
A
  • pavlov, watson, thorndike, skinner
  • OBJECTIVE study of stimuli-response relations
    law of effect: reinforcement
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27
Q

Law Of Effect:

A

pleasing after effect strengthens action that produced it (REINFORCEMENT)

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28
Q

Gestalt

A

Wetheimer
organization of cognitive processes
elements alone sufficient
whole greater than sum of its parts

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29
Q

Psychodynamic

A

Freud
unconscious influences on behaviour
case studies, no research
grand theory of personality (how stages affect person later in life)

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30
Q

Humanistic

A

Rogers, Maslow
opposed behaviourism, psychodynamic
personal growth, self-actualization
positive side of human nature

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31
Q

Cognitive

A

Neisser, Simon
re-introduction of the study of mental processes and cognitive structures
using reaction-time, accuracy
infer cognitive processes

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32
Q

Biological

A

Sperry, Hubel, Wiesel, D.O. Hebb
brain function and behaviour
imaging techniques

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33
Q

Scientific Method

A

a set of general procedures for gathering and interpreting data
- controlled observation and measurement that permits replication of results

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34
Q

Correlation can help us…but doesnt allow..

but Experimentation allows us to..

A

predict behavior but doesn’t allow us to draw cause and effect conclusions (infer causation)
(measuring pre-existing differences in participants)

understand and explain behavior,
if you understand you can control and apply

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35
Q

Theory

A

a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations

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36
Q

A good theory … (2)
accounts for..
must also be specific enough to..

A

accounts for a large # of disparate facts

generate testable hypotheses (falsifiable/verifiable)

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37
Q

Hypothesis

A

tentative statement about the relationship between 2 or more variables

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38
Q

Hypothesis
derived from…
ideally a…

A
  • from previous knowledge

- cause and effect relationship

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39
Q

Steps in a Scientific Investigation

A 
1 - formulate HYPOTHESIS 
2 - DESIGN study
3 - collect DATA
4 - ANALYZE data to evaluate hypothesis
5 - communicate RESULTS (evaluation, replication)
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40
Q

Experiments allow researchers to..

A

draw conclusions about cause and effect relationships

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41
Q

Dependant Variable

A

measured behavior

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42
Q

Independant Variable

A

cause of behaviour

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43
Q

Operational Definitions of Variables

A

how the variables are practically defined
- involves taking something abstract (ex. aggression) and turning it into something measurable (ex. # of times child is suspended for fighting)

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44
Q

Operational Definitions of Variables PERMITS…

A

assessment of validity
(the extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure)
- whether it is a reasonable measure of the general concept

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45
Q

experimental group

A

exposed to a particular value of the independent variable manipulated by experimenter

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46
Q

control group

A

comparison group exposed to the naturally occurring or zero value of independent variable

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47
Q

it is crucial that the experimental and control groups be ____ in all respects except for the manipulation of the __ ___

A

similar

independent variable

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48
Q

Extraneous Variable

A

any variable other than the independant variable that could influence dependant variable

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49
Q

Confounding

A

possible extraneous variable between groups compromise cause and effect relationships

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50
Q

Extraneous variables can be equated across experimental and control groups through…

A

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT of participants to conditions

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51
Q

Within-Subject Design

this rules out..

A

same subject participates in all conditions or groups

..extraneous subject variables

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52
Q

Within Subject Design

- must be careful about…

A

order in which subjects participate in the various conditions - COUNTERBALANCING

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53
Q

we often manipulate more than one independant variable in an experiment
therefore we evaluate __ and __ effects of each independant variable

A

seperate and joint

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54
Q

subject and experimenter expectations can ___ the outcome

A

influence

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55
Q

Placebo Effect

A

effect of belief without an actual influence by the presumed causal agent

improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement

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56
Q

To protect again Placebo Affects

A

Double Blind Experiments

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57
Q

Double Blind Experiment

A

both the participants and the experimenter are unaware of the specific treatment condition

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58
Q

What makes a study an experiment? (2)

A

1) RANDOM ASSIGNMENT

2) manipulation of INDEPENDANT VARIABLE

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59
Q

Experimental Research

A

one or more variables are manipulated, and effect of that manipulation on other variables is studied

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60
Q

Advantages of EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

A

strict control of variables offer researchers opportunity to draw conclusions about cause & effect relationships

No other method can duplicate this advantage

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61
Q

Limitations of EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

A
  • the artificiality of the lab setting may influence subjects behavior:
    unexpected and uncontrolled variables may confound results:
    many variables cannot be controlled and manipulated
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62
Q

Non-experimental Methods are often used to …

A

initially describe behavior for future research

  • evaluate behavior that cant be experimentally examined
  • establish DEGREE of relationship b/w different variables and behavior
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63
Q

naturalistic observation:

A

formal record of observed events in a natural setting

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64
Q

case studies:

A

detailed history and analysis of a single individual

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65
Q

surveys:

A

large number of participants complete a self-report questionnaire

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66
Q

Correlational Research

employs ___ ___ to examine the ___ between ___ or ___ ____

A

statistical methods
relationship
two or more variables

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67
Q

Correlational Research allows for the ___ of behavior from ___ of certain variables

A

prediction

knowledge

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68
Q

Scatterplot

A

paired X and Y scores for each variable are plotted as single points

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69
Q

Scatterplots can depict… (3)

A

positive (direct)
negative (inverse)
or zero
CORRELATION

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70
Q

Correlation

ranges b/w…

A

quantifies the strength of association between two variables

-1.0 and +1.0

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71
Q

Positive Correlation

A

as X increases, Y increases

0 -> +1

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72
Q

Negative Correlation

A

as X increases, Y decreases

0 -> -1

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73
Q

No Correlation

A

no relationship

0

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74
Q

Descriptive statistics
used to…
2 types

A

numerical characterizations that describe data
- used to summarize behavioral observations, and compare measurements to test hypothesis

central tendency, variability

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75
Q

central tendancy

A

type of descriptive statistics

gives a sense of the central score in our data set or where group tends to cluster

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76
Q

3 measures of central tendency

A

mean: arithmetic average
median: middle value of scores
mode: most frequent score

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77
Q

Variability

A

degree to which a group of scores are clustered or distributed

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78
Q

2 measures of variability

A

range
standard deviation - shows how much variation there is from the average (increases/decreases proportionally to variability)

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79
Q

Normal Distribution
1 SD - ___ %
2 SD - ___ %

A

scores cluster around the mean in the form of a bell-shaped curve
1 SD - 68%
2 SD - 95%

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80
Q

Inferential Statistics

used to determine..

A

mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize findings from sample to population

used to determine whether numerical differences between groups are relevant
use chance or probability

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81
Q

Statistical Significance

A

indicates that the observed differences were unlikely to occur on the basis of chance alone

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82
Q

Evolutionary Psychology seeks to understand how..

A

abilities and behaviours have evolved over time due to enviromental demands

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83
Q

Charles Darwin’s dangerous idea

A

Evolution

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84
Q

Evolution

A

theory about creation of life that is governed by natural causes that occur over unimaginable tracts of time

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85
Q

Theory of Evolution : (3)

A

Heredity : offspring share (inherit) similarities with parents

Variation: members of the same species, although similar, share differences

Natural Selection: organisms well adapted to their environment will produce more offspring than those who are less well adapted

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86
Q

If Variation and Heredity and Natural Selection Then…

A

must have design out of chaos

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87
Q

Social Darwinism

A

application of darwinism to study of human society

Evolution shapes society and social systems

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88
Q

Social Darwinism - Functionalism

A

Complex mental functions (e.g., Consciousness) have adaptive significance (William James).

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89
Q

Social Darwinism - Herbert Spencer saw evolution as a …

A

concept that applied to our social as well as physical world.
“survival of the fittest”

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90
Q

Spencer used principles of Natural Selectional to justify…

A

justify the exploitation of poor working class.

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91
Q

Sir Francis Galton
interested in…
believed that…

A

how and why people differ in abilities.

talent/genius and intelligence is inherited and related to one’s moral worth

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92
Q

Sir Francis Galton attempted to base public policy on the concept of…
this started…

A

genetically superior and inferior people

Started eugenics movement.

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93
Q

Eugenics

A

The study of improving the human species by applying evolutionary theory to encouraging biologically superior people to interbreed while discouraging biologically inferior people from having offspring.

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94
Q

In response to the extreme abuses of social darwinism and later the eugenics movement, there was a swing in philosophy back towards …

A 
environmental determinism (e.g., tabula rasa).
supported by behaviorists
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95
Q

Sociobiology

..attempts to explain…

A

A hybrid of various disciplines that attempts to explain social behaviours in animal species as influenced by evolutionary processes.

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96
Q

Sociobiology does NOT imply that…

or that..

A

behaviour is genetically predetermined

or that behaviour is unchangeable (David Buss).

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97
Q

Sociobiology provides a way to understand the…

A

the human mind and behaviour from an evolutionary perspective.

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98
Q

Evolutionary psychology provides a way to understand the

A

human mind and complex behaviour from an evolutionary perspective.

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99
Q

Neuron

A

nerve cell specialized for communication

receives, processes, sends info to other cells

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100
Q

Soma

A

cell body/central region of neuron

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101
Q

Dendrites

A

collect info from other neurons

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102
Q

Axon

A

carries message away from cell body towards next neuron

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103
Q

Axon Hillock

A

regulates the firing of the neuron in an all-or-none manner

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104
Q

Terminal Buttons

A

secrete neurotransmitters to next neuron

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105
Q

myelin sheath

A

insulates axons

prevents cross-talk, speeds transmission

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106
Q

cross-talk

A

info transfer with other neurons
- scrambled info transfer
(to neurons other than post synaptic neuron)

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107
Q

How do neurons send info?

A

action potentials

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108
Q

primary objective of each neuron is to determine …

A

whether they are going to release an action potential or not

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109
Q

The summation of excitatory and inhibitory signals occurs at the …

A

AXON HILLOCK

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110
Q

Action Potential

A

(electrical impulse) brief shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that travels along the axon from the cell body (or axon hillock) to the terminal buttons and triggers release of neurotransmitters

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111
Q

Action Potential Events
1) Resting potential

2) stimulated neuron
Na+
3) K+

4) back to normal

A

1)
Resting Potential: inside of cell membrane negative (-70mv) relative to outside (high [Na+] outside

2) when neuron stimulated, Na+ channels open and Na+ rushes in
E charge becomes +50 mv

3) K+ channels open, K+ rushes out
E charge becomes -75 to -80 mv

4) sodium-potassium transporter (pump) exchanges Na+ and K+
E charge returns to resting potential

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112
Q

Synaptic Transmission

neuronal processing at the synapse:

A

once charge has headed into terminal buttons
stimulates synaptic vesicles (containing neurotransmitters) to migrate to cell membrane
- vesicles open and release neurotransmitters

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113
Q

Synaptic Transmission

After vesicles open and release neurotransmitters…

A

neurotransmitters travel across synaptic cleft and bind to appropriate receptor sites
- this open ion channels on post synaptic membrane (lets ions in)
Excitatory/Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential
neurotransmitter released for reuptake or inactivation by enzymes

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114
Q

Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential

Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential

A

Na+

Cl-

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115
Q

NERVOUS SYSTEM comprised of 2 major subsystems

A

Peripheral NS

Central NS

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116
Q

PNS contains all…

helps us know what is going on with our bodies and helps our bodies repond by..

A

the neuron based structures outside of the brain and spinal cord.

..controlling muscles and glands which release various hormones like adrenaline

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117
Q

PNS major subsystems

A

Somatic NS

Autonomic NS

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118
Q 
Somatic NS (often consciously controlled)
controls:
A

skeletal muscles, efferent (outbound) and afferent (inbound) nerves

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119
Q

Somatic NS

Efferent vs Afferent

A

Efferent - Outbound:
commands you give your body: sent from brain, down spine into PNS

Afferent - Inward
info sent to CNS

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120
Q 
Autonomic NS (often auto controlled) 
controls:
A

glands and smooth muscles (heart & stomach), blood vessels, internal organs

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121
Q

Autonomic NS has two parts

A

Sympathetic

Parasympathetic

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122
Q

Sympathetic

A

action, energy output, fight or flight

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123
Q

Parasympathetic

A

conserve energy, quiet state

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124
Q

CNS comprised of

A

spinal cord and brain

what makes humans unique among all other creatures on earth

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125
Q

Spinal Reflexes

A

Spinal Cord connects to PNS with CNS and is capable of making these simple responses
- adaptive b/c it allows you to respond much faster

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126
Q

Brain is divided into (3) parts

A

Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain

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127
Q

Hindbrain

- involved with..

A

old part of brain involved with a lot of important life supporting processes

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128
Q

Hindbrain consists of (4)

A

1) Cerebellum
2) Pons
3) Medulla
4) Reticular Formation

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129
Q

Hindbrain

1) Cerebellum

A

plays important role in motor control, coordination, balance, eye movement, learning and cognitive abilities
connects to Pons

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130
Q

Hindbrain

2) Pons

A 
sleep control (regulating sleep), 
connects brainstem to cerebellum
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131
Q

Hindbrain

3) Medulla

A

regulates heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, muscle tone, circulation

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132
Q

Damage to Medulla can cause..

A

brain death - irreversible coma

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133
Q

Hindbrain

4) Reticular Formation

A

involved with processes associated with arousal levels

activation from ascending fibers related to general arousal

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134
Q

Midbrain

control of…

A

movements associated with fighting and sexual behaviour, spatial localization

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135
Q

Midbrain (3)

A

Superior Colliculi
Inferior Colliculi
Substantia Nigra

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136
Q

Midbrain

Superior colliculi:

A

visual system

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137
Q

Midbrain

Inferior colliculi:

A

auditory sysem

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138
Q

Midbrain

Substantia nigra:

A

source of the dopamine system

control of voluntary movement, connected to Parkinson’s disease

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139
Q

Forebrain

includes…

A

sub-cortical structures as well as the cerebrum

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140
Q 
Forebrain
Subcortical structures (3)
A

1) Thalamus
2) Hypothalamus
3) Limbic System

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141
Q

Forebrain

1) Thalamus

A

relay station for all sensory information EXCEPT smell

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142
Q

Forebrain

2) Hypothalamus

A

controls pituitary, which influences ANS, physiological maintenance (homeostasis)

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143
Q

Forebrain

3) Limbic System
- parts (4)

A

emotion and memory

a) Amygdala
b) Hippocampus
c) Medial-forebrain bundle
d) limbic cortex

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144
Q

Forebrain

3) Limbic System
a) AMYGDALA

A

emotion, particularly fight or flight response

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145
Q

Forebrain

3) Limbic System
b) HIPPOCAMPUS

A

memory

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146
Q

Forebrain

3) Limbic System
c) MEDIAL-FOREBRAIN BUNDLE

A

pleasure (dopamine system)

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147
Q

Forebrain

3) Limbic System
d) limbic cortex

A

above corpus collosum

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148
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

neural bridge that connects the two sides of your brain called hemispheres

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149
Q

Forebrain:

CEREBRUM

A

corpus callosum

cortex

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150
Q

Forebrain: Cerebrum:

CORPUS CALLOSUM

A

communication b/w cerebral hemispheres (200 million connections)

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151
Q

Forebrain: Cerebrum:

CORTEX (4)

A

Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal

  • LOBE
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152
Q

Forebrain: Cerebrum: Cortex:
FRONTAL LOBE
(2)

A
  • assist us in motor function (movement) language and memory
    1) Primary motor cortex - voluntary movement of body parts

2) prefrontal cortex - planning, strategies, self-awareness
BROCA’s AREA - vital for formation of speech

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153
Q

Homunculus

A

homunculus: size of parts reflect area of cortex dedicated to that motor activity

154
Q

Forebrain: Cerebrum: Cortex:
PARIETAL LOBE (behind frontal)
(3)

A

1) primary somatosensory cortex: receives data about sensations in skin, muscles, joints
2) taste
3) second level visual association cortex: where objects are in space

155
Q

Forebrain: Cerebrum: Cortex:
TEMPORAL LOBE
(3)

A

1) primary auditory cortex: ability to understand sound, pitch and volume

WERNICKE’s AREA - interpret spoken & written language

2) smell:

3) second level visual association cortex: what objects are (hippocampus)
- recognizing faces

156
Q

Forebrain: Cerebrum: Cortex:
OCCIPITAL LOBE
(2)

A

1) primary visual cortex: seeing, colours
recieves nerve impulses from visual thalamus

2) first level visual association cortex:
analyze visual data to form images

157
Q

EEG

A

electroencephalograph

158
Q

EEG monitors…

method

A

averaged electrical activity of the brain over time

attach electrodes to surface of skull and measure resultant activity for various conditions
characteristic patterns of activity in humans

159
Q

EEG

A

electroencephalograph

160
Q

EEG monitors…

method

A

averaged electrical activity of the brain over time

attach electrodes to surface of skull and measure resultant activity for various conditions
characteristic patterns of activity in humans

161
Q

Alpha & Beta Waves

A

low amplitude, high frequency for wakefulness

162
Q

Theta Waves

A

medium amplitude, low frequency for light sleep

163
Q

Delta Waves

A

high amplitude, low frequency for deep sleep

164
Q

If you cut…

lateral hypothalamus:

A

loss of interest in eating and potential starvation

165
Q

if you cut…

ventromedial hypothalamus:

A

eating more frequently and weight gain

166
Q

Alpha & Beta Waves

A

low amplitude, high frequency for wakefulness

167
Q

Theta Waves

A

medium amplitude, low frequency for light sleep

168
Q

Delta Waves

A

high amplitude, low frequency for deep sleep

169
Q

lesioning

A

destroy portions of the brain and examine behavioral differences

170
Q

stereotaxic instrument

A

localization of brain structure using 3-D coordinates

device can cut area of the brain

171
Q

If you cut…

lateral hypothalamus

A

loss of interest in eating and potential starvation

172
Q

if you cut…

ventromedial hypothalamus:

A

eating more frequently and weight gain

173
Q

MRI:

A

magnetic resonance imaging

uses electromagnetic and radio wave technology to evaluate both brain structure and function with improved resolution

174
Q

ESB

A

electrical stimulation of the brain

- stimulating specific areasof the brain with a weak electrical current and observing behaviour

175
Q

stimulation of amygdala produces…

A

rage reactions in cats (emotional response)

176
Q

stimulation of medial forebrain bundle (connections between the midbrain and hypothalamus of dopamine system)

A

related to pleasure centres

177
Q

Brain Imaging (3)

A

CT Scan
PET Scan
MRI

178
Q

1) CT Scan

A

computerized axial tomography uses X-rays to evaluate brain structure

179
Q

Hemispheric Lateralization

A

specialization of cognitive and behavioural functions between hemispheres

180
Q

early evidence suggested language was in which hemisphere?

A

left

181
Q

1) Broca’s Area

2) Wernicke’s Area

A

1) speech production

2) speech comprehension

182
Q

representations for senses are sent to which hemisphere?

exceptions?

A

opposite (i.e, contralateral) hemisphere

except smell and vision

183
Q

Senses other than smell and vision
left side -
right side -

A

right hemisphere

left hemisphere

184
Q

motor commands
left side -
right side -

A

right hemisphere

left hemisphere

185
Q

Smell
left nostril -
right nostril -

A

left hemisphere

right hemisphere

186
Q

for vision lateralization occurs …

A

as a function of visual fields

187
Q

objects presented to the left of fixation ( left visual field) project to the…
and are processed in the…

A

right side of each eye and are processed in the right hemisphere

188
Q

objects presented to the right of fixation (iright visual field) project to the…
and are processed in the …

A

left side of each eye and are processed in the left hemisphere

189
Q

Split Brain

A

cut corpus callosum due to severe epilepsy

hemispheres isolated and unable to communicate

test patients for the separate abilities of the right and left hemispheres using visual and manual tasks

190
Q

_VF (_H) - name and describe objects

_VF(_H) - unable to name and describe objects

A

RVF (LH) - because speech is in LH

LVF (RH)

191
Q 
\_\_ hand (_H) - name and describe objects
\_\_ hand (_H) unable to name and describe objects
A

right hand - LH

left hand - RH

192
Q

RVF(LH) - accurately select objects with __ hand

LVF(RH) - accurately select objects with __ hand

A

right
left

  • RH is processing object info
193
Q

left hand (RH) - superior with …

A

simple spatial tasks

194
Q

normal subjects:

A

investigate perceptual asymmetries or differences in cognitive processing between hemispheres

195
Q

psychoactive drugs

A

can affect several processes at the level of the synapse

196
Q

visual face recognition -

A

RH > LH by 20%

197
Q

auditory letter recognition -

A

LH > RH by 80%

198
Q

auditory melody recognition -

A

RH > LH by 20%

199
Q

visual letter recognition -

A

LH > RH by 20%

200
Q

visual face recognition -

A

RH > LH by 20%

201
Q

auditory letter recognition -

A

LH > RH by 80%

202
Q

auditory melody recognition -

A

RH > LH by 20%

203
Q

evidence of asymmetries demonstrates …

over-interpreted by the media and public

A

a RELATIVE advantage in processing of one hemisphere over another

204
Q

Law of Mass Action

A

The response is proportional to the fraction of receptors occupied at any given moment.

205
Q

Dopamine

cocaine:

A

a stimulant that blocks reuptake producing more post-synaptic DA potentials

AGONISTIC drug

206
Q

Dopamine

amphetamines:

continued use causes…

A

stimulants that both increase release of DA and block reuptake

AGONISTIC drug

continued use:
positive symptoms of schizo (hallucinations/voices)
depletion (death of neurons from over-firing)

207
Q

Agonistic drugs

A

– mimics the actions of neurotransmitters

208
Q

venom of black widow spider:

A

stimulates release of ACh causing massive post-synaptic potentials

209
Q

botulinum toxin:

A

prevents release of ACh despite neural firing

210
Q

curare:

A

blocks post-synaptic receptors

211
Q

nicotine

A

stimulates some post-synaptic ACh receptors

212
Q

depletion of Ach observed for individuals suffering from

A

Alzheimer’s disease

213
Q

dopamine DA:

A

neurotransmitter involved with the instructions for the control of voluntary movements and reward centres

214
Q

degeneration of DA neurons leads to …

A

Parkinsonism (tremors, rigidity, reduced control)

215
Q

cocaine:

A

a stimulant that blocks reuptake producing more post-synaptic DA potentials

216
Q

amphetamines:

A

stimulants that both increase release of DA and block reuptake

continued use:
positive symptoms
depletion

217
Q

Law of Mass Action

A

The response is proportional to the fraction of receptors occupied at any given moment.

218
Q

Agonistic drugs

A

– mimics the actions of neurotransmitters

219
Q

Antagonistic drugs

A

– oppose or block the action of neurotransmitters.

220
Q

acetylcholine (ACh):

A

neurotransmitter for motor neurons involving voluntary movement (attention, arousal and memory as well)

221
Q

venom of black widow spider:

A

stimulates release of ACh causing massive post-synaptic potentials

222
Q

nicotine

A

stimulates some post-synaptic ACh receptors

223
Q

depletion of Ach observed for individuals suffering from

A

Alzheimer’s disease

224
Q

dopamine DA:

A

neurotransmitter involved with the instructions for the control of voluntary movements and reward centres

225
Q

degeneration of DA neurons leads to …

A

Parkinsonism (tremors, rigidity, reduced control)

226
Q

cocaine:

A

a stimulant that blocks reuptake producing more post-synaptic DA potentials

227
Q

low levels of serotonin

A

depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder

228
Q

amphetamines:

A

stimulants that both increase release of DA and block reuptake

continued use:
positive symptoms
depletion

229
Q

cocaine & amphetamines

norepinephrine (NE):

A

cocaine and amphetamines also block reuptake at NE synapses
implicated as a mechanism for mood disorders
- activity produces mania
- activity produces depression
accounts for emotional crash after drug abuse

230
Q

serotonin:

A

neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness

  • activity observed during sleep
  • activity observed during wakefulness
231
Q

Prozac:

A

anti-depressant drug that interferes with re-uptake of serotonin
also affects other neurotransmitters (so-called dirty drug)

232
Q

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

- produces…

A

produces IPSPs

receptors widely distributed throughout the brain

233
Q

GABA activity regulates

A

anxiety by keeping overall neural excitement in check

234
Q

reduced levels of GABA activity -

A

feelings of anxiety and anxiety disorders

235
Q

barbiturates and benzodiazepines:

produce?

A

attach to GABA receptors and facilitate the binding of GABA itself

increased IPSPs (i.e., sedation and reduced anxiety)

236
Q

Examples of barbiturates and benzodiazepines:

A

Valium & Xanax

237
Q

Light

A

The Visible Part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

237
Q

shortest wavelength

longest wavelength

A

violet

red

237
Q

Antagonistic/Agonistic drugs

1) venom of black widow spider
2) botulinum toxin
3) nicotine
4) curare

A

1) agonist
2) antagonist
3) agonist
4) antagonist

237
Q

Light wavelength

A

380 to 760 nm

237
Q

shortest wavelength

longest wavelength

A

violet

red

238
Q

transduction:

A

convert environmental energy into neural activity with sensory receptors

238
Q

transduction:

A

convert environmental energy into neural activity with sensory receptors

239
Q

anatomical coding:

A

specific neural circuits signify particular sensory experiences

239
Q

temporal coding:

A

rate of neural firing signifies stimulus intensity

239
Q

Light

A

The Visible Part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

240
Q

Light wavelength

A

380 to 760 nm

241
Q

shortest wavelength

longest wavelength

A

violet

red

242
Q

transduction:

A

convert environmental energy into neural activity with sensory receptors

243
Q

anatomical coding:

A

specific neural circuits signify particular sensory experiences

244
Q

temporal coding:

A

rate of neural firing signifies stimulus intensity

245
Q

First, light waves enter the front bulging, transparent part of the eye, called the ___.

A

cornea

246
Q

The cornea is important because it not only helps___ the eye, it also is a fixed lens that directs the light towards the ___ of the eyeball.

A

protect

back

247
Q

. Directly behind the cornea is the __, which is where the __ __.

A

pupil

light enters

248
Q

The pupil is black because…

A

the light enters but doesn’t leave

249
Q

. Behind the pupil is an adjustable ___

A

lens

250
Q

Both the fixed ___ and the flexible ___ direct the light waves toward the back of the eyeball on a special paper-thin strip of tissue called the ___

A

cornea
lens
retina

251
Q

It is on this multi-layered tissue (the retina) that sensory receptors, which we will call ____ , help …

A

photoreceptors

transduce light waves into neural signals

252
Q

Surrounding these photoreceptors are support cells that help to …

A

nourish the photoreceptors and also absorb excess light - CHORIOD or PIGMENT epithelium

253
Q

An especially crucial part of the retina is an area called the..

A

fovea

254
Q

The fovea is important because this area helps us see with a ___ __ of __ __ and also is primarily responsible for our ability to perceive ___

A

high degree of visual acuity

colour

255
Q

ciliary muscles

A

used to change the shape of the adjustable lens and the iris which is the coloured part of the eye which helps determine how much light will get inside

256
Q

iris will open or close depending on

A

whether the eye needs more or less light

257
Q

Lastly, at the back of each of our eyeballs there is a location that is referred to as the __ ___

A

blind spot

258
Q

. It is on this blind spot that information gathered from the ___ leaves the eyeball for …

A

retina

further processing in the brain

259
Q

The blind spot is named this because…

A

there are no photoreceptors in this area and so you are blind in this region
( you dont have hole in your vision b/c brain automatically fills in these gaps)

260
Q

Retina

A

screen of photoreceptors extending over most of the interior

261
Q

choroid or pigment epithelium

A

nourish photoreceptors and absorb excess light

262
Q

Fovea

A

region around axis or center, point of focus for fixated objects

263
Q

blind spot

A

point of exit of ganglion cell axons

264
Q

cornea

A

transparent bulge in sclera, fixed lens

265
Q

pupil

A

black hole where light enters the eye, capable of 16 fold change in area

266
Q

iris

A

coloured membrane, controls amount of light entering eye

267
Q

lens

A

focus image on retina through process of accommodation or bending to focus near objects (less than 6m)

268
Q

Information that is transduced by our photoreceptors (i.e., rods and cones) is passed to our…

A

bipolar cells

269
Q

Then info is sent to the… from which the info is taken into..

A

ganglion cells

the brain

270
Q

Horizontal cells allow for

A

communication among photoreceptors

271
Q

Amacrine cells allow for

A

communication among ganglion cells.

272
Q

Rods and Cones

A

receptors for vision

273
Q

Bipolar and Ganglion

A

neurons that transmit information from the rods and cones to the brain

274
Q

horizontal:

A

connect receptors to receptors

275
Q

amacrine:

A

connect spatially adjacent bipolar and ganglion neurons

276
Q

scotopic vision

A

night - rods

277
Q

photopic vision

A

day - cones

278
Q

responsible for colour vision

A

cones

279
Q

more sensitive to light

A

rods

280
Q

(5) processes at the Synapse

A

1) Synthesis and Storage of neurotransmitter molecules in synaptic vesicles
2) Release of neurotransmitter molecules into synaptic cleft
3) Binding of neurotransmitters at receptor sites on postsynaptic membrane
4) Inactivation (by enzymes) or removal (drifting away) of neurotransmitters
5) Reuptake of neurotransmitters sponged up by the presynaptic neuron

281
Q

a) Agonistic vs b) Antagonistic Drug Affect on:

1) Synthesis and Storage of neurotransmitter molecules in synaptic vesicles

A

a) causes neuron to synthesize more, store them more safely

b) impairs neuron’s ability to synthesize and store transmitter, may leak or degrade prematurely

282
Q

a) Agonistic vs b) Antagonistic Drug Affect on:

2) Release of neurotransmitter molecules into synaptic cleft

A

a) causes neuron to release more transmitter molecules

b) impairs neurons ability to release transmitter

283
Q

a) Agonistic vs b) Antagonistic Drug Affect on:

3) Binding of neurotransmitters at receptor sites on postsynaptic membrane

A

a) drug and neurotransmitter have similar structure, so drug binds with receptor site and activates it
b) drug binds with receptor site but is not similar enough to activate it so it blocks transmitter from activating site

284
Q

a) Agonistic vs b) Antagonistic Drug Affect on:

5) Reuptake of neurotransmitters sponged up by the presynaptic neuron

A

a) drug blocks reuptake so more transmitter molecules remain in synapse, available to activate receptor sites

285
Q

ACh

A

neurotransmitter for motor neurons involving voluntary movement (attention, arousal and memory as well)

STIMULANT

  • in hippocampus
286
Q

venom of black widow spider

A

ACh agonist

stimulates release of ACh causing massive post-synaptic potentials

287
Q

botulinum toxin

uses

A

ACh antagonist

prevents release of ACh despite neural firing

botox - minute quantities

288
Q

Nicotine

A

ACh agonist

stimulates some post-synaptic ACh receptors

289
Q

Curare

A

ACh antagonist

blocks post-synaptic receptors
includes muscles that move diaphram during breathing
- can cause paralysis and death

290
Q

Alzheimer’s disease: a ___ of ACh ___ brain’s ability to ___ with itself.

A

reduction
reduces
communicate

291
Q

Dopamine DA

A

neurotransmitter involved with the instructions for the control of voluntary movements and reward centres

292
Q

degeneration of DA neurons leads to …

A

Parkinsonism (tremors, rigidity, reduced control)

destroys pathway

293
Q

Cocaine

A

Dopamine Agonist

Stimulant that blocks reuptake producing more post-synaptic DA potentials

294
Q

Amphetamines

A

Dopamine Agonist

stimulants that both increase release of DA and block reuptake

  • crystal meth
295
Q

Continued use of Amphetamines can cause…

A

positive symptoms of schizophrenia (hallucinations, paranoia)

and depletion of naturally produced Dopamine

296
Q

overactive DA synapses can cause..

A

positive symptoms of schizophrenia (dopamine hypothesis)

297
Q

anti-psychotic drugs bind to ___-___ ___ (ex.___) and___ post-synaptic potentials

they relieve what symptoms?
what do they produce as a side effect?

A

post-synaptic receptors (ex. chlorpromazine)
reduce

relieve the positive symptoms of the schizophrenia
produce Parkinsonism symptoms as a side effect

298
Q

too much DA

not enough DA

A

schizophrenia

parkinsons

299
Q

___ and ___ also block reuptake at NE synapses

implicated as a mechanism for __ ___

a) increased activity produces…
b) decreased activity produces…
- this accounts for __ ___ after __ __

A

cocaine and amphetamines

mood disorders

a) mania
b) depression
emotional crash after drug abuse

300
Q

Seratonin

A

neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness

301
Q

Seratonin

a) Increased Activity observed during?
b) Decrease in Activity observed during?

A

a) observed during sleep

b) during wakefulness

302
Q

Low levels of serotonin are characteristic in people suffering from (2):

A

depression + Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

303
Q

Prozac:

A

anti-depressant drug that interferes with re-uptake of serotonin

Seratonin Agonist

304
Q

Why is Prozac a so-called “dirty drug”

A

also affects other neurotransmitters

305
Q

In the presence of benzodiazepine binding, GABA molecules that bind to GABA receptors are ___ effective in opening ___ channels to which they are linked

A

more effective

chloride (Cl-)

306
Q

This increase of influx of Cl- (due to presence of benzodiazepine binding) produces…

A

greater inhibition (greater hyperpolarization)

307
Q

GABA produces what kind of Post Synaptic Potential?

A

INHIBITORY

308
Q

GABA activity regulates ____

how?

A

anxiety

by keeping overall neural excitement in check

309
Q

reduced levels of GABA activity produce …

A

feelings of anxiety and anxiety disorders

310
Q

barbiturates and benzodiazepines

this produces …

A

attach to GABA receptors and facilitate the binding of GABA itself

this produces increases IPSP’s
(sedation, reduced anxiety)

311
Q

cornea is a curved transparent layer/bulge in sclera covering the __ and ___.

A

iris and pupil

312
Q

Cornea’s shape

A

bends incoming light to focus incoming visual image at the back of the eye

313
Q

Other than the Cornea, what else bends light in the eye?

How does this structure differ from the cornea?

A

Lens

can change its curvature but cornea is fixed

314
Q

Lens: process of Accommodation

A

lenses changes shape to focus light on back of the eye (adapt to different distances)

315
Q

Iris

Sclera

A

Iris - coloured part of the eye (b/c of pigments) controls amount of light entering eye

Sclera - white of the eye

316
Q

Pupil

A

circular hole through which light enters the eye

317
Q

What structure changes light into neural activity

A

RETINA

318
Q

the __ is the central part of the retina

responsible for?

A

fovea

acuity - sharpness of vision

319
Q

Fovea is the part of the retina where light rays are most..

A

sharply focused

320
Q

Choroid of pigment epithelium

A

nourish photoreceptors and absorb excess light

321
Q

point of exit of ganglion cell axons

A

blind spot

322
Q

Retina contains ___

A

photoreceptors

323
Q

What do these photoreceptors do?

A

transduce light waves into neural signals

324
Q

(2) main types of photoreceptors

A

RODS and CONES

325
Q

Cones

specialized for perception of…

A

colour

326
Q

Rods allow us to see in.. but percieve only..

A

dimly lit situations

black, white and shades of grey

327
Q

Info that is transduced by our photoreceptors is passed to?
then info is sent to?
then where?

A

bipolar cells
ganglion cells
from which info is taken into the brain

328
Q

Horizontal Cells allow for…

A

communication among photoreceptors

329
Q

Amacrine Cells allow for..

A

communication among ganglion cells

330
Q

Order of cells closest to incoming light stimulus

A

ganglion cells
bipolar cells
photoreceptors

Light actually passes through layers of neurons before striking photoreceptors

331
Q

More Rods or Cones?

A

MORE rods

124 mill. rods > 6.4 mill. cones

332
Q

Connect receptors to receptors

A

horizontal cells

333
Q

connect spatially adjacent bipolar and ganglion neurons

A

amacrine cells

334
Q

duplicity theory of vision

A

rods - scotopic vision (night)

cones - photopic vision (day)

335
Q

Are photoreceptors equally distributed across the retina?

A

NO

336
Q

Fovea contains which photoreceptor?

A

ONLY cones (150,000 per mm2)

337
Q

At what angle in periphery is there max rod density?

A

20˚

338
Q

Convergence - Rods

A

multiple rod cells converge on a single retinal ganglion cell, which collects and amplifies signal but results in poor visual acuity b/c pooled info is less distinct

MANY : ONE relationship with ganglion cells

339
Q

Convergence - Cones

A

1:1 relationship with ganglion cells

340
Q

How many ganglion cells?

A

1 million

341
Q

Acuity in

a) cones
b) rods

A

a) high

b) low

342
Q

low light vision

a) cones
b) rods

A

a) poor

b) excellent

343
Q

rods and cones contain…

A

pigments

344
Q

Pigments

a) rods
b) cones

A

a) rhodopsin = retinal + scotopsin

b) iodopsin = retinal + photopsin

345
Q

transduction of light into neural energy occurs through ….

A

absorption of photons

346
Q

how many photons of light can produce a visual response

A

7

347
Q

transduction of light into neural energy occurs through absorption of photons

Process?

A

retinal absorbs photons, pigment changes shape, ion exchange (transduction) split (bleached)

348
Q

Pigment Regeneration

A

light breaks down pigments,

- pigment needs to regenerate …most effective in the dark

349
Q

Rhodopsin regenerates with the help of…

deficiency may lead to…

A

Vitamin A

deficiency may lead to temporary loss of rod function

350
Q

Dark Adaptation

A

time in dark before rods regain maximum light sensitivity

gain in sensitivity to light as a function of time spent in the dark

351
Q

Typical Observed Function of Dark Adaptation

A

initial sensitivity due to fast cone adaptation (7-10 minutes)
later sensitivity due to slower rod adaptation (10-30 minutes)

352
Q

Dark Adaptation is related to …

A

Pigment Regeneration

cones require approx. 6 mins
rods require approx. 30

353
Q

perception of a colour depends on..

A

a mixture of 3 dimensions

354
Q

perception of a colour depends on a mixture of 3 dimensions

What are they?

A

1) Hue
2) Saturation
3) Brightness

355
Q

Hue

A

wavelength of light (green vs. blue)

356
Q

Saturation

A

purity of light (red vs. pink)

multiple vs single (more pure)

357
Q

Brightness

A

Intensity of light (white vs black)

amplitude of wave

358
Q

subtractive colour mixing:

absorbed/reflected

A

certain wavelengths of light selectively absorbed by the pigments of paint or filters

perceived colour is reflected combination of wavelengths that were not absorbed

CYAN, MAGENTA, YELLOW

359
Q

additive colour mixing:

A

different wavelengths of light add together to form the resultant colour

RED, GREEN, BLUE

360
Q

Trichromatic theory

A

colour matching

proposes that eye contains 3 receptors each differentially sensitive to the various wavelengths of light

for any colour, 3 receptors will produce a unique ratio of activity

361
Q

colour matching:

A

any 3 wavelengths of light (primaries) may be mixed in different proportions to produce all possible colours

red blue green often chosen as primaries
(need all 3 )

362
Q

several colour phenomena are not readily explained by trichromatic theory but this theory explains them

A

Opponent-process theory

After-Images

363
Q

After-Images :

A

after staring at a coloured image for a long time, and then look away, you see a different coloured replica of the same image (complement colour)

you expended these cells’ capacity to fire action potentials, white should excite all, but only excites colours that weren’t exhausted - complementary colours

blue - yellow
red - green

364
Q

complementary colours:

A

when arranged in the colour circle, opposite colours when mixed in equal proportions yield neutral gray

365
Q

Opponent-Process theory proposed that …

A

the eye contains 3 opponent-process receptors: red/green
blue/yellow
black/white

366
Q

evidence indicates ….

A

3 types of cone receptors as proposed by trichromatic theory

367
Q

evidence also indicates opponent-process type cells at …

A

ganglion, thalamus and visual cortex levels

368
Q

visual system wired such that…

A

output from the cone systems produce opponent-process responses

369
Q

rod monochromats:

A

non-functional cones, poor visual acuity, shades of gray

370
Q

protanopia:

A

defective long, inability to distinguish red and purple

371
Q

deuteranopia:

A

defective medium, insensitive to green

372
Q

tritanopia:

A

defective short, insensitive to blue and yellow

373
Q

protanopia (L) and deuteranopia (M) indicate loss of …

A

red/green opponent channel

PSYCH 102 (4 decks)

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