midterm 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Psychology
A
scientific study of the causes of behaviour and associated mental processes
2
Q
behaviour is multiply determined
A
produced by many factors (not just one)
3
Q
__, ___, ___ behavior and mental processes using scientific method
A
observe
describe
explain
4
Q
we measure behaviour because it can be quantified and verified and it is used as the…
A
outer sign of inner reality
- conscious experience and mental processing
5
Q
empirical, verifiable facts
A
acquired by observation or experimentation
can be replicated
6
Q
we measure behaviour to characterize…
A
conscious experience and mental processing
7
Q
psychology includes many areas of study:
A
basic
applied
8
Q
basic
A
description, explanation
no practical application
9
Q
applied
A
prediction, control
10
Q
behaviour studied at many different levels
A
micro - brain processes
molecular - responses of individual
molar - groups
11
Q
2 groups psychologists classify factors responsible for behaviour
A
dispositional - personal, internal causes
situational - environmental/external
12
Q
theses are closely related to…
A
nature vs nurture
13
Q
Psychology is (3)
A
emperical - relying on/derived from observation
theoretically diverse - different levels of analysis
operates in sociohistorical context - psychologists investigate in things we care about/are popular
14
Q
Behavior is (4)
A
1) multiply determined
2) shaped by cultural heritage (sociocultural)
3) determined by interaction b/w heredity + environment (nature versus nurture)
4) based on our highly subjective experiences
15
Q
6 Theoretical Perspectives of Psychology
A
Biological Psychodynamic Evolutionary Humanistic Cognitive Behavioural
16
Q
Biological
A
neuroscience
physiological + biochemical processes
brain & CNS, biochemical basis of behavior & mental processes
17
Q
Psychodynamic
A
unconscious motivation and early childhood experiences (play big role in who you are)
unconscious drives, motives, conflicts
18
Q
Behaviourism
A
stimulus-response contingencies
stimulus conditions, overt responses, reinforcement contingencies
ONLY OBSERVED BEHAVIOUR
19
Q
Cognitive
A
stimulus conditions and mental processes
mental processes inferred through behavioural indicators
20
Q
Evolutionary
A
environmental pressures and adaptations
evolved behaviours and mental mechanisms
21
Q
Humanistic
A
achievement of self-actualization
human potential, personal growth
22
Q
Structuralism (def’n)
A
uses introspection to identify basic elements or structures of experience
23
Q
Structuralism
- who
- what
- examined..
- used..
A
Wundt 1879 - developed 1st psych lab in Leipzig Germany
scientific study of the mind (consciousness)
components of consciousness
introspection
24
Q
Introspection
A
careful reporting of inner sensations (mental processes)
25
```
Functionalism
- who
- focus on..
- influenced by..
emphasized study of ...
```
- James
- functions/adaptive purposes of consciousness
- Darwin
mental operations: thinking produces useful behaviour
26
Behaviourism
- who (4)
- study
- law of..
- pavlov, watson, thorndike, skinner
- OBJECTIVE study of stimuli-response relations
law of effect: reinforcement
27
Law Of Effect:
pleasing after effect strengthens action that produced it (REINFORCEMENT)
28
Gestalt
Wetheimer
organization of cognitive processes
elements alone sufficient
whole greater than sum of its parts
29
Psychodynamic
Freud
unconscious influences on behaviour
case studies, no research
grand theory of personality (how stages affect person later in life)
30
Humanistic
Rogers, Maslow
opposed behaviourism, psychodynamic
personal growth, self-actualization
positive side of human nature
31
Cognitive
Neisser, Simon
re-introduction of the study of mental processes and cognitive structures
using reaction-time, accuracy
infer cognitive processes
32
Biological
Sperry, Hubel, Wiesel, D.O. Hebb
brain function and behaviour
imaging techniques
33
Scientific Method
a set of general procedures for gathering and interpreting data
- controlled observation and measurement that permits replication of results
34
Correlation can help us...but doesnt allow..
| but Experimentation allows us to..
predict behavior but doesn't allow us to draw cause and effect conclusions (infer causation)
(measuring pre-existing differences in participants)
understand and explain behavior,
if you understand you can control and apply
35
Theory
a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations
36
A good theory ... (2)
accounts for..
must also be specific enough to..
accounts for a large # of disparate facts
| generate testable hypotheses (falsifiable/verifiable)
37
Hypothesis
tentative statement about the relationship between 2 or more variables
38
Hypothesis
derived from...
ideally a...
- from previous knowledge
| - cause and effect relationship
39
Steps in a Scientific Investigation
```
1 - formulate HYPOTHESIS
2 - DESIGN study
3 - collect DATA
4 - ANALYZE data to evaluate hypothesis
5 - communicate RESULTS (evaluation, replication)
```
40
Experiments allow researchers to..
draw conclusions about cause and effect relationships
41
Dependant Variable
measured behavior
42
Independant Variable
cause of behaviour
43
Operational Definitions of Variables
how the variables are practically defined
- involves taking something abstract (ex. aggression) and turning it into something measurable (ex. # of times child is suspended for fighting)
44
Operational Definitions of Variables PERMITS...
assessment of validity
(the extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure)
- whether it is a reasonable measure of the general concept
45
experimental group
exposed to a particular value of the independent variable manipulated by experimenter
46
control group
comparison group exposed to the naturally occurring or zero value of independent variable
47
it is crucial that the experimental and control groups be ____ in all respects except for the manipulation of the __ ___
similar
| independent variable
48
Extraneous Variable
any variable other than the independant variable that could influence dependant variable
49
Confounding
possible extraneous variable between groups compromise cause and effect relationships
50
Extraneous variables can be equated across experimental and control groups through...
RANDOM ASSIGNMENT of participants to conditions
51
Within-Subject Design
| this rules out..
same subject participates in all conditions or groups
| ..extraneous subject variables
52
Within Subject Design
| - must be careful about...
order in which subjects participate in the various conditions - COUNTERBALANCING
53
we often manipulate more than one independant variable in an experiment
therefore we evaluate __ and __ effects of each independant variable
seperate and joint
54
subject and experimenter expectations can ___ the outcome
influence
55
Placebo Effect
effect of belief without an actual influence by the presumed causal agent
improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement
56
To protect again Placebo Affects
Double Blind Experiments
57
Double Blind Experiment
both the participants and the experimenter are unaware of the specific treatment condition
58
What makes a study an experiment? (2)
1) RANDOM ASSIGNMENT
| 2) manipulation of INDEPENDANT VARIABLE
59
Experimental Research
one or more variables are manipulated, and effect of that manipulation on other variables is studied
60
Advantages of EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
strict control of variables offer researchers opportunity to draw conclusions about cause & effect relationships
No other method can duplicate this advantage
61
Limitations of EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
- the artificiality of the lab setting may influence subjects behavior:
unexpected and uncontrolled variables may confound results:
many variables cannot be controlled and manipulated
62
Non-experimental Methods are often used to ...
initially describe behavior for future research
- evaluate behavior that cant be experimentally examined
- establish DEGREE of relationship b/w different variables and behavior
63
naturalistic observation:
formal record of observed events in a natural setting
64
case studies:
detailed history and analysis of a single individual
65
surveys:
large number of participants complete a self-report questionnaire
66
Correlational Research
| employs ___ ___ to examine the ___ between ___ or ___ ____
statistical methods
relationship
two or more variables
67
Correlational Research allows for the ___ of behavior from ___ of certain variables
prediction
| knowledge
68
Scatterplot
paired X and Y scores for each variable are plotted as single points
69
Scatterplots can depict... (3)
positive (direct)
negative (inverse)
or zero
CORRELATION
70
Correlation
| ranges b/w...
quantifies the strength of association between two variables
-1.0 and +1.0
71
Positive Correlation
as X increases, Y increases
| 0 -> +1
72
Negative Correlation
as X increases, Y decreases
| 0 -> -1
73
No Correlation
no relationship
| 0
74
Descriptive statistics
used to...
2 types
numerical characterizations that describe data
- used to summarize behavioral observations, and compare measurements to test hypothesis
central tendency, variability
75
central tendancy
type of descriptive statistics
| gives a sense of the central score in our data set or where group tends to cluster
76
3 measures of central tendency
mean: arithmetic average
median: middle value of scores
mode: most frequent score
77
Variability
degree to which a group of scores are clustered or distributed
78
2 measures of variability
range
standard deviation - shows how much variation there is from the average (increases/decreases proportionally to variability)
79
Normal Distribution
1 SD - ___ %
2 SD - ___ %
scores cluster around the mean in the form of a bell-shaped curve
1 SD - 68%
2 SD - 95%
80
Inferential Statistics
| used to determine..
mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize findings from sample to population
used to determine whether numerical differences between groups are relevant
use chance or probability
81
Statistical Significance
indicates that the observed differences were unlikely to occur on the basis of chance alone
82
Evolutionary Psychology seeks to understand how..
abilities and behaviours have evolved over time due to enviromental demands
83
Charles Darwin's dangerous idea
Evolution
84
Evolution
theory about creation of life that is governed by natural causes that occur over unimaginable tracts of time
85
Theory of Evolution : (3)
Heredity : offspring share (inherit) similarities with parents
Variation: members of the same species, although similar, share differences
Natural Selection: organisms well adapted to their environment will produce more offspring than those who are less well adapted
86
If Variation and Heredity and Natural Selection Then...
must have design out of chaos
87
Social Darwinism
application of darwinism to study of human society
Evolution shapes society and social systems
88
Social Darwinism - Functionalism
Complex mental functions (e.g., Consciousness) have adaptive significance (William James).
89
Social Darwinism - Herbert Spencer saw evolution as a ...
concept that applied to our social as well as physical world.
"survival of the fittest"
90
Spencer used principles of Natural Selectional to justify...
justify the exploitation of poor working class.
91
Sir Francis Galton
interested in...
believed that...
how and why people differ in abilities.
| talent/genius and intelligence is inherited and related to one's moral worth
92
Sir Francis Galton attempted to base public policy on the concept of...
this started...
genetically superior and inferior people
| Started eugenics movement.
93
Eugenics
The study of improving the human species by applying evolutionary theory to encouraging biologically superior people to interbreed while discouraging biologically inferior people from having offspring.
94
In response to the extreme abuses of social darwinism and later the eugenics movement, there was a swing in philosophy back towards ...
```
environmental determinism (e.g., tabula rasa).
supported by behaviorists
```
95
Sociobiology
| ..attempts to explain...
A hybrid of various disciplines that attempts to explain social behaviours in animal species as influenced by evolutionary processes.
96
Sociobiology does NOT imply that...
| or that..
behaviour is genetically predetermined
| or that behaviour is unchangeable (David Buss).
97
Sociobiology provides a way to understand the...
the human mind and behaviour from an evolutionary perspective.
98
Evolutionary psychology provides a way to understand the
human mind and complex behaviour from an evolutionary perspective.
99
Neuron
nerve cell specialized for communication
| **receives, processes, sends info to other cells**
100
Soma
cell body/central region of neuron
101
Dendrites
collect info from other neurons
102
Axon
carries message away from cell body towards next neuron
103
Axon Hillock
regulates the firing of the neuron in an all-or-none manner
104
Terminal Buttons
secrete neurotransmitters to next neuron
105
myelin sheath
insulates axons
| prevents cross-talk, speeds transmission
106
cross-talk
info transfer with other neurons
- scrambled info transfer
(to neurons other than post synaptic neuron)
107
How do neurons send info?
action potentials
108
primary objective of each neuron is to determine ...
whether they are going to release an action potential or not
109
The summation of excitatory and inhibitory signals occurs at the ...
AXON HILLOCK
110
Action Potential
(electrical impulse) brief shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that travels along the axon from the cell body (or axon hillock) to the terminal buttons and triggers release of neurotransmitters
111
Action Potential Events
1) Resting potential
2) stimulated neuron
Na+
3) K+
4) back to normal
1)
Resting Potential: inside of cell membrane negative (-70mv) relative to outside (high [Na+] outside
2) when neuron stimulated, Na+ channels open and Na+ rushes in
E charge becomes +50 mv
3) K+ channels open, K+ rushes out
E charge becomes -75 to -80 mv
4) sodium-potassium transporter (pump) exchanges Na+ and K+
E charge returns to resting potential
112
Synaptic Transmission
| neuronal processing at the synapse:
once charge has headed into terminal buttons
stimulates synaptic vesicles (containing neurotransmitters) to migrate to cell membrane
- vesicles open and release neurotransmitters
113
Synaptic Transmission
| After vesicles open and release neurotransmitters...
neurotransmitters travel across synaptic cleft and bind to appropriate receptor sites
- this open ion channels on post synaptic membrane (lets ions in)
Excitatory/Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential
neurotransmitter released for reuptake or inactivation by enzymes
114
Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential
Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential
Na+
Cl-
115
NERVOUS SYSTEM comprised of 2 major subsystems
Peripheral NS
| Central NS
116
PNS contains all...
| helps us know what is going on with our bodies and helps our bodies repond by..
the neuron based structures outside of the brain and spinal cord.
..controlling muscles and glands which release various hormones like adrenaline
117
PNS major subsystems
Somatic NS
| Autonomic NS
118
```
Somatic NS (often consciously controlled)
controls:
```
skeletal muscles, efferent (outbound) and afferent (inbound) nerves
119
Somatic NS
| Efferent vs Afferent
Efferent - Outbound:
commands you give your body: sent from brain, down spine into PNS
Afferent - Inward
info sent to CNS
120
```
Autonomic NS (often auto controlled)
controls:
```
glands and smooth muscles (heart & stomach), blood vessels, internal organs
121
Autonomic NS has two parts
Sympathetic
| Parasympathetic
122
Sympathetic
action, energy output, fight or flight
123
Parasympathetic
conserve energy, quiet state
124
CNS comprised of
spinal cord and brain
| what makes humans unique among all other creatures on earth
125
Spinal Reflexes
Spinal Cord connects to PNS with CNS and is capable of making these simple responses
- adaptive b/c it allows you to respond much faster
126
Brain is divided into (3) parts
Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
127
Hindbrain
| - involved with..
old part of brain involved with a lot of important life supporting processes
128
Hindbrain consists of (4)
1) Cerebellum
2) Pons
3) Medulla
4) Reticular Formation
129
Hindbrain
| 1) Cerebellum
plays important role in motor control, coordination, balance, eye movement, learning and cognitive abilities
connects to Pons
130
Hindbrain
| 2) Pons
```
sleep control (regulating sleep),
connects brainstem to cerebellum
```
131
Hindbrain
| 3) Medulla
regulates heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, muscle tone, circulation
132
Damage to Medulla can cause..
brain death - irreversible coma
133
Hindbrain
| 4) Reticular Formation
involved with processes associated with arousal levels
| activation from ascending fibers related to general arousal
134
Midbrain
| control of...
movements associated with fighting and sexual behaviour, spatial localization
135
Midbrain (3)
Superior Colliculi
Inferior Colliculi
Substantia Nigra
136
Midbrain
| Superior colliculi:
visual system
137
Midbrain
| Inferior colliculi:
auditory sysem
138
Midbrain
| Substantia nigra:
source of the dopamine system
| control of voluntary movement, connected to Parkinson’s disease
139
Forebrain
| includes...
sub-cortical structures as well as the cerebrum
140
```
Forebrain
Subcortical structures (3)
```
1) Thalamus
2) Hypothalamus
3) Limbic System
141
Forebrain
| 1) Thalamus
relay station for all sensory information EXCEPT smell
142
Forebrain
| 2) Hypothalamus
controls pituitary, which influences ANS, physiological maintenance (homeostasis)
143
Forebrain
3) Limbic System
- parts (4)
emotion and memory
a) Amygdala
b) Hippocampus
c) Medial-forebrain bundle
d) limbic cortex
144
Forebrain
3) Limbic System
a) AMYGDALA
emotion, particularly fight or flight response
145
Forebrain
3) Limbic System
b) HIPPOCAMPUS
memory
146
Forebrain
3) Limbic System
c) MEDIAL-FOREBRAIN BUNDLE
pleasure (dopamine system)
147
Forebrain
3) Limbic System
d) limbic cortex
above corpus collosum
148
Corpus Callosum
neural bridge that connects the two sides of your brain called hemispheres
149
Forebrain:
| CEREBRUM
corpus callosum
| cortex
150
Forebrain: Cerebrum:
| CORPUS CALLOSUM
communication b/w cerebral hemispheres (200 million connections)
151
Forebrain: Cerebrum:
| CORTEX (4)
Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal
- LOBE
152
Forebrain: Cerebrum: Cortex:
FRONTAL LOBE
(2)
- assist us in motor function (movement) language and memory
1) Primary motor cortex - voluntary movement of body parts
2) prefrontal cortex - planning, strategies, self-awareness
BROCA's AREA - vital for formation of speech
153
Homunculus
homunculus: size of parts reflect area of cortex dedicated to that motor activity
154
Forebrain: Cerebrum: Cortex:
PARIETAL LOBE (behind frontal)
(3)
1) primary somatosensory cortex: receives data about sensations in skin, muscles, joints
2) taste
3) second level visual association cortex: where objects are in space
155
Forebrain: Cerebrum: Cortex:
TEMPORAL LOBE
(3)
1) primary auditory cortex: ability to understand sound, pitch and volume
WERNICKE's AREA - interpret spoken & written language
2) smell:
3) second level visual association cortex: what objects are (hippocampus)
- recognizing faces
156
Forebrain: Cerebrum: Cortex:
OCCIPITAL LOBE
(2)
1) primary visual cortex: seeing, colours
recieves nerve impulses from visual thalamus
2) first level visual association cortex:
analyze visual data to form images
157
EEG
electroencephalograph
158
EEG monitors...
| method
averaged electrical activity of the brain over time
attach electrodes to surface of skull and measure resultant activity for various conditions
characteristic patterns of activity in humans
159
EEG
electroencephalograph
160
EEG monitors...
| method
averaged electrical activity of the brain over time
attach electrodes to surface of skull and measure resultant activity for various conditions
characteristic patterns of activity in humans
161
Alpha & Beta Waves
low amplitude, high frequency for wakefulness
162
Theta Waves
medium amplitude, low frequency for light sleep
163
Delta Waves
high amplitude, low frequency for deep sleep
164
If you cut...
| lateral hypothalamus:
loss of interest in eating and potential starvation
165
if you cut...
| ventromedial hypothalamus:
eating more frequently and weight gain
166
Alpha & Beta Waves
low amplitude, high frequency for wakefulness
167
Theta Waves
medium amplitude, low frequency for light sleep
168
Delta Waves
high amplitude, low frequency for deep sleep
169
lesioning
destroy portions of the brain and examine behavioral differences
170
stereotaxic instrument
localization of brain structure using 3-D coordinates
| device can cut area of the brain
171
If you cut...
| lateral hypothalamus
loss of interest in eating and potential starvation
172
if you cut...
| ventromedial hypothalamus:
eating more frequently and weight gain
173
MRI:
magnetic resonance imaging
| uses electromagnetic and radio wave technology to evaluate both brain structure and function with improved resolution
174
ESB
electrical stimulation of the brain
| - stimulating specific areasof the brain with a weak electrical current and observing behaviour
175
stimulation of amygdala produces...
rage reactions in cats (emotional response)
176
stimulation of medial forebrain bundle (connections between the midbrain and hypothalamus of dopamine system)
related to pleasure centres
177
Brain Imaging (3)
CT Scan
PET Scan
MRI
178
1) CT Scan
computerized axial tomography uses X-rays to evaluate brain structure
179
Hemispheric Lateralization
specialization of cognitive and behavioural functions between hemispheres
180
early evidence suggested language was in which hemisphere?
left
181
1) Broca's Area
| 2) Wernicke's Area
1) speech production
| 2) speech comprehension
182
representations for senses are sent to which hemisphere?
| exceptions?
opposite (i.e, contralateral) hemisphere
| except smell and vision
183
Senses other than smell and vision
left side -
right side -
right hemisphere
| left hemisphere
184
motor commands
left side -
right side -
right hemisphere
| left hemisphere
185
Smell
left nostril -
right nostril -
left hemisphere
| right hemisphere
186
for vision lateralization occurs ...
as a function of visual fields
187
objects presented to the left of fixation ( left visual field) project to the...
and are processed in the...
right side of each eye and are processed in the right hemisphere
188
objects presented to the right of fixation (iright visual field) project to the...
and are processed in the ...
left side of each eye and are processed in the left hemisphere
189
Split Brain
cut corpus callosum due to severe epilepsy
hemispheres isolated and unable to communicate
test patients for the separate abilities of the right and left hemispheres using visual and manual tasks
190
_VF (_H) - name and describe objects
_VF(_H) - unable to name and describe objects
RVF (LH) - because speech is in LH
| LVF (RH)
191
```
__ hand (_H) - name and describe objects
__ hand (_H) unable to name and describe objects
```
right hand - LH
| left hand - RH
192
RVF(LH) - accurately select objects with __ hand
| LVF(RH) - accurately select objects with __ hand
right
left
- RH is processing object info
193
left hand (RH) - superior with ...
simple spatial tasks
194
normal subjects:
investigate perceptual asymmetries or differences in cognitive processing between hemispheres
195
psychoactive drugs
can affect several processes at the level of the synapse
196
visual face recognition -
RH > LH by 20%
197
auditory letter recognition -
LH > RH by 80%
198
auditory melody recognition -
RH > LH by 20%
199
visual letter recognition -
LH > RH by 20%
200
visual face recognition -
RH > LH by 20%
201
auditory letter recognition -
LH > RH by 80%
202
auditory melody recognition -
RH > LH by 20%
203
evidence of asymmetries demonstrates ...
over-interpreted by the media and public
a RELATIVE advantage in processing of one hemisphere over another
204
Law of Mass Action
The response is proportional to the fraction of receptors occupied at any given moment.
205
Dopamine
cocaine:
a stimulant that blocks reuptake producing more post-synaptic DA potentials
AGONISTIC drug
206
Dopamine
amphetamines:
continued use causes...
stimulants that both increase release of DA and block reuptake
AGONISTIC drug
continued use:
positive symptoms of schizo (hallucinations/voices)
depletion (death of neurons from over-firing)
207
Agonistic drugs
– mimics the actions of neurotransmitters
208
venom of black widow spider:
stimulates release of ACh causing massive post-synaptic potentials
209
botulinum toxin:
prevents release of ACh despite neural firing
210
curare:
blocks post-synaptic receptors
211
nicotine
stimulates some post-synaptic ACh receptors
212
depletion of Ach observed for individuals suffering from
Alzheimer’s disease
213
dopamine DA:
neurotransmitter involved with the instructions for the control of voluntary movements and reward centres
214
degeneration of DA neurons leads to ...
Parkinsonism (tremors, rigidity, reduced control)
215
cocaine:
a stimulant that blocks reuptake producing more post-synaptic DA potentials
216
amphetamines:
stimulants that both increase release of DA and block reuptake
continued use:
positive symptoms
depletion
217
Law of Mass Action
The response is proportional to the fraction of receptors occupied at any given moment.
218
Agonistic drugs
– mimics the actions of neurotransmitters
219
Antagonistic drugs
– oppose or block the action of neurotransmitters.
220
acetylcholine (ACh):
neurotransmitter for motor neurons involving voluntary movement (attention, arousal and memory as well)
221
venom of black widow spider:
stimulates release of ACh causing massive post-synaptic potentials
222
nicotine
stimulates some post-synaptic ACh receptors
223
depletion of Ach observed for individuals suffering from
Alzheimer’s disease
224
dopamine DA:
neurotransmitter involved with the instructions for the control of voluntary movements and reward centres
225
degeneration of DA neurons leads to ...
Parkinsonism (tremors, rigidity, reduced control)
226
cocaine:
a stimulant that blocks reuptake producing more post-synaptic DA potentials
227
low levels of serotonin
depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder
228
amphetamines:
stimulants that both increase release of DA and block reuptake
continued use:
positive symptoms
depletion
229
cocaine & amphetamines
norepinephrine (NE):
cocaine and amphetamines also block reuptake at NE synapses
implicated as a mechanism for mood disorders
- activity produces mania
- activity produces depression
accounts for emotional crash after drug abuse
230
serotonin:
neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness
- activity observed during sleep
- activity observed during wakefulness
231
Prozac:
anti-depressant drug that interferes with re-uptake of serotonin
also affects other neurotransmitters (so-called dirty drug)
232
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
| - produces...
produces IPSPs
| receptors widely distributed throughout the brain
233
GABA activity regulates
anxiety by keeping overall neural excitement in check
234
reduced levels of GABA activity -
feelings of anxiety and anxiety disorders
235
barbiturates and benzodiazepines:
| produce?
attach to GABA receptors and facilitate the binding of GABA itself
increased IPSPs (i.e., sedation and reduced anxiety)
236
Examples of barbiturates and benzodiazepines:
Valium & Xanax
237
Light
The Visible Part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
237
shortest wavelength
| longest wavelength
violet
| red
237
Antagonistic/Agonistic drugs
1) venom of black widow spider
2) botulinum toxin
3) nicotine
4) curare
1) agonist
2) antagonist
3) agonist
4) antagonist
237
Light wavelength
380 to 760 nm
237
shortest wavelength
| longest wavelength
violet
| red
238
transduction:
convert environmental energy into neural activity with sensory receptors
238
transduction:
convert environmental energy into neural activity with sensory receptors
239
anatomical coding:
specific neural circuits signify particular sensory experiences
239
temporal coding:
rate of neural firing signifies stimulus intensity
239
Light
The Visible Part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
240
Light wavelength
380 to 760 nm
241
shortest wavelength
| longest wavelength
violet
| red
242
transduction:
convert environmental energy into neural activity with sensory receptors
243
anatomical coding:
specific neural circuits signify particular sensory experiences
244
temporal coding:
rate of neural firing signifies stimulus intensity
245
First, light waves enter the front bulging, transparent part of the eye, called the ___.
cornea
246
The cornea is important because it not only helps___ the eye, it also is a fixed lens that directs the light towards the ___ of the eyeball.
protect
| back
247
. Directly behind the cornea is the __, which is where the __ __.
pupil
| light enters
248
The pupil is black because...
the light enters but doesn't leave
249
. Behind the pupil is an adjustable ___
lens
250
Both the fixed ___ and the flexible ___ direct the light waves toward the back of the eyeball on a special paper-thin strip of tissue called the ___
cornea
lens
retina
251
It is on this multi-layered tissue (the retina) that sensory receptors, which we will call ____ , help ...
photoreceptors
| transduce light waves into neural signals
252
Surrounding these photoreceptors are support cells that help to ...
nourish the photoreceptors and also absorb excess light - CHORIOD or PIGMENT epithelium
253
An especially crucial part of the retina is an area called the..
fovea
254
The fovea is important because this area helps us see with a ___ __ of __ __ and also is primarily responsible for our ability to perceive ___
high degree of visual acuity
| colour
255
ciliary muscles
used to change the shape of the adjustable lens and the iris which is the coloured part of the eye which helps determine how much light will get inside
256
iris will open or close depending on
whether the eye needs more or less light
257
Lastly, at the back of each of our eyeballs there is a location that is referred to as the __ ___
blind spot
258
. It is on this blind spot that information gathered from the ___ leaves the eyeball for ...
retina
| further processing in the brain
259
The blind spot is named this because...
there are no photoreceptors in this area and so you are blind in this region
( you dont have hole in your vision b/c brain automatically fills in these gaps)
260
Retina
screen of photoreceptors extending over most of the interior
261
choroid or pigment epithelium
nourish photoreceptors and absorb excess light
262
Fovea
region around axis or center, point of focus for fixated objects
263
blind spot
point of exit of ganglion cell axons
264
cornea
transparent bulge in sclera, fixed lens
265
pupil
black hole where light enters the eye, capable of 16 fold change in area
266
iris
coloured membrane, controls amount of light entering eye
267
lens
focus image on retina through process of accommodation or bending to focus near objects (less than 6m)
268
Information that is transduced by our photoreceptors (i.e., rods and cones) is passed to our...
bipolar cells
269
Then info is sent to the... from which the info is taken into..
ganglion cells
| the brain
270
Horizontal cells allow for
communication among photoreceptors
271
Amacrine cells allow for
communication among ganglion cells.
272
Rods and Cones
receptors for vision
273
Bipolar and Ganglion
neurons that transmit information from the rods and cones to the brain
274
horizontal:
connect receptors to receptors
275
amacrine:
connect spatially adjacent bipolar and ganglion neurons
276
scotopic vision
night - rods
277
photopic vision
day - cones
278
responsible for colour vision
cones
279
more sensitive to light
rods
280
(5) processes at the Synapse
1) Synthesis and Storage of neurotransmitter molecules in synaptic vesicles
2) Release of neurotransmitter molecules into synaptic cleft
3) Binding of neurotransmitters at receptor sites on postsynaptic membrane
4) Inactivation (by enzymes) or removal (drifting away) of neurotransmitters
5) Reuptake of neurotransmitters sponged up by the presynaptic neuron
281
a) Agonistic vs b) Antagonistic Drug Affect on:
| 1) Synthesis and Storage of neurotransmitter molecules in synaptic vesicles
a) causes neuron to synthesize more, store them more safely
| b) impairs neuron's ability to synthesize and store transmitter, may leak or degrade prematurely
282
a) Agonistic vs b) Antagonistic Drug Affect on:
| 2) Release of neurotransmitter molecules into synaptic cleft
a) causes neuron to release more transmitter molecules
| b) impairs neurons ability to release transmitter
283
a) Agonistic vs b) Antagonistic Drug Affect on:
| 3) Binding of neurotransmitters at receptor sites on postsynaptic membrane
a) drug and neurotransmitter have similar structure, so drug binds with receptor site and activates it
b) drug binds with receptor site but is not similar enough to activate it so it blocks transmitter from activating site
284
a) Agonistic vs b) Antagonistic Drug Affect on:
| 5) Reuptake of neurotransmitters sponged up by the presynaptic neuron
a) drug blocks reuptake so more transmitter molecules remain in synapse, available to activate receptor sites
285
ACh
neurotransmitter for motor neurons involving voluntary movement (attention, arousal and memory as well)
STIMULANT
- in hippocampus
286
venom of black widow spider
ACh agonist
stimulates release of ACh causing massive post-synaptic potentials
287
botulinum toxin
uses
ACh antagonist
prevents release of ACh despite neural firing
botox - minute quantities
288
Nicotine
ACh agonist
stimulates some post-synaptic ACh receptors
289
Curare
ACh antagonist
| blocks post-synaptic receptors
includes muscles that move diaphram during breathing
- can cause paralysis and death
290
Alzheimer's disease: a ___ of ACh ___ brain's ability to ___ with itself.
reduction
reduces
communicate
291
Dopamine DA
neurotransmitter involved with the instructions for the control of voluntary movements and reward centres
292
degeneration of DA neurons leads to ...
Parkinsonism (tremors, rigidity, reduced control)
destroys pathway
293
Cocaine
Dopamine Agonist
Stimulant that blocks reuptake producing more post-synaptic DA potentials
294
Amphetamines
Dopamine Agonist
stimulants that both increase release of DA and block reuptake
- crystal meth
295
Continued use of Amphetamines can cause...
positive symptoms of schizophrenia (hallucinations, paranoia)
and depletion of naturally produced Dopamine
296
overactive DA synapses can cause..
positive symptoms of schizophrenia (dopamine hypothesis)
297
anti-psychotic drugs bind to ___-___ ___ (ex.___) and___ post-synaptic potentials
they relieve what symptoms?
what do they produce as a side effect?
post-synaptic receptors (ex. chlorpromazine)
reduce
relieve the positive symptoms of the schizophrenia
produce Parkinsonism symptoms as a side effect
298
too much DA
| not enough DA
schizophrenia
| parkinsons
299
___ and ___ also block reuptake at NE synapses
implicated as a mechanism for __ ___
a) increased activity produces...
b) decreased activity produces...
- this accounts for __ ___ after __ __
cocaine and amphetamines
mood disorders
a) mania
b) depression
emotional crash after drug abuse
300
Seratonin
neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness
301
Seratonin
a) Increased Activity observed during?
b) Decrease in Activity observed during?
a) observed during sleep
| b) during wakefulness
302
Low levels of serotonin are characteristic in people suffering from (2):
depression + Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
303
Prozac:
anti-depressant drug that interferes with re-uptake of serotonin
Seratonin Agonist
304
Why is Prozac a so-called "dirty drug"
also affects other neurotransmitters
305
In the presence of benzodiazepine binding, GABA molecules that bind to GABA receptors are ___ effective in opening ___ channels to which they are linked
more effective
| chloride (Cl-)
306
This increase of influx of Cl- (due to presence of benzodiazepine binding) produces...
greater inhibition (greater hyperpolarization)
307
GABA produces what kind of Post Synaptic Potential?
INHIBITORY
308
GABA activity regulates ____
| how?
anxiety
by keeping overall neural excitement in check
309
reduced levels of GABA activity produce ...
feelings of anxiety and anxiety disorders
310
barbiturates and benzodiazepines
this produces ...
attach to GABA receptors and facilitate the binding of GABA itself
this produces increases IPSP's
(sedation, reduced anxiety)
311
cornea is a curved transparent layer/bulge in sclera covering the __ and ___.
iris and pupil
312
Cornea's shape
bends incoming light to focus incoming visual image at the back of the eye
313
Other than the Cornea, what else bends light in the eye?
| How does this structure differ from the cornea?
Lens
| can change its curvature but cornea is fixed
314
Lens: process of Accommodation
lenses changes shape to focus light on back of the eye (adapt to different distances)
315
Iris
| Sclera
Iris - coloured part of the eye (b/c of pigments) controls amount of light entering eye
Sclera - white of the eye
316
Pupil
circular hole through which light enters the eye
317
What structure changes light into neural activity
RETINA
318
the __ is the central part of the retina
| responsible for?
fovea
| acuity - sharpness of vision
319
Fovea is the part of the retina where light rays are most..
sharply focused
320
Choroid of pigment epithelium
nourish photoreceptors and absorb excess light
321
point of exit of ganglion cell axons
blind spot
322
Retina contains ___
photoreceptors
323
What do these photoreceptors do?
transduce light waves into neural signals
324
(2) main types of photoreceptors
RODS and CONES
325
Cones
| specialized for perception of...
colour
326
Rods allow us to see in.. but percieve only..
dimly lit situations
| black, white and shades of grey
327
Info that is transduced by our photoreceptors is passed to?
then info is sent to?
then where?
bipolar cells
ganglion cells
from which info is taken into the brain
328
Horizontal Cells allow for...
communication among photoreceptors
329
Amacrine Cells allow for..
communication among ganglion cells
330
Order of cells closest to incoming light stimulus
ganglion cells
bipolar cells
photoreceptors
Light actually passes through layers of neurons before striking photoreceptors
331
More Rods or Cones?
MORE rods
| 124 mill. rods > 6.4 mill. cones
332
Connect receptors to receptors
horizontal cells
333
connect spatially adjacent bipolar and ganglion neurons
amacrine cells
334
duplicity theory of vision
rods - scotopic vision (night)
| cones - photopic vision (day)
335
Are photoreceptors equally distributed across the retina?
NO
336
Fovea contains which photoreceptor?
ONLY cones (150,000 per mm2)
337
At what angle in periphery is there max rod density?
20˚
338
Convergence - Rods
multiple rod cells converge on a single retinal ganglion cell, which collects and amplifies signal but results in poor visual acuity b/c pooled info is less distinct
MANY : ONE relationship with ganglion cells
339
Convergence - Cones
1:1 relationship with ganglion cells
340
How many ganglion cells?
1 million
341
Acuity in
a) cones
b) rods
a) high
| b) low
342
low light vision
a) cones
b) rods
a) poor
| b) excellent
343
rods and cones contain...
pigments
344
Pigments
a) rods
b) cones
a) rhodopsin = retinal + scotopsin
| b) iodopsin = retinal + photopsin
345
transduction of light into neural energy occurs through ....
absorption of photons
346
how many photons of light can produce a visual response
7
347
transduction of light into neural energy occurs through absorption of photons
Process?
retinal absorbs photons, pigment changes shape, ion exchange (transduction) split (bleached)
348
Pigment Regeneration
light breaks down pigments,
| - pigment needs to regenerate ...most effective in the dark
349
Rhodopsin regenerates with the help of...
deficiency may lead to...
Vitamin A
deficiency may lead to temporary loss of rod function
350
Dark Adaptation
time in dark before rods regain maximum light sensitivity
gain in sensitivity to light as a function of time spent in the dark
351
Typical Observed Function of Dark Adaptation
initial sensitivity due to fast cone adaptation (7-10 minutes)
later sensitivity due to slower rod adaptation (10-30 minutes)
352
Dark Adaptation is related to ...
Pigment Regeneration
cones require approx. 6 mins
rods require approx. 30
353
perception of a colour depends on..
a mixture of 3 dimensions
354
perception of a colour depends on a mixture of 3 dimensions
| What are they?
1) Hue
2) Saturation
3) Brightness
355
Hue
wavelength of light (green vs. blue)
356
Saturation
purity of light (red vs. pink)
| multiple vs single (more pure)
357
Brightness
Intensity of light (white vs black)
| amplitude of wave
358
subtractive colour mixing:
absorbed/reflected
certain wavelengths of light selectively absorbed by the pigments of paint or filters
perceived colour is reflected combination of wavelengths that were not absorbed
CYAN, MAGENTA, YELLOW
359
additive colour mixing:
different wavelengths of light add together to form the resultant colour
RED, GREEN, BLUE
360
Trichromatic theory
colour matching
proposes that eye contains 3 receptors each differentially sensitive to the various wavelengths of light
for any colour, 3 receptors will produce a unique ratio of activity
361
colour matching:
any 3 wavelengths of light (primaries) may be mixed in different proportions to produce all possible colours
red blue green often chosen as primaries
(need all 3 )
362
several colour phenomena are not readily explained by trichromatic theory but this theory explains them
Opponent-process theory
After-Images
363
After-Images :
after staring at a coloured image for a long time, and then look away, you see a different coloured replica of the same image (complement colour)
you expended these cells' capacity to fire action potentials, white should excite all, but only excites colours that weren't exhausted - complementary colours
blue - yellow
red - green
364
complementary colours:
when arranged in the colour circle, opposite colours when mixed in equal proportions yield neutral gray
365
Opponent-Process theory proposed that ...
the eye contains 3 opponent-process receptors: red/green
blue/yellow
black/white
366
evidence indicates ....
3 types of cone receptors as proposed by trichromatic theory
367
evidence also indicates opponent-process type cells at ...
ganglion, thalamus and visual cortex levels
368
visual system wired such that...
output from the cone systems produce opponent-process responses
369
rod monochromats:
non-functional cones, poor visual acuity, shades of gray
370
protanopia:
defective long, inability to distinguish red and purple
371
deuteranopia:
defective medium, insensitive to green
372
tritanopia:
defective short, insensitive to blue and yellow
373
protanopia (L) and deuteranopia (M) indicate loss of ...
red/green opponent channel
