FINAL - Psych 102 Flashcards
1
Q
Sensory relay of the brain
A
THALAMUS
2
Q
lateral geniculate nuclei
A
primary relay center for visual information received from the retina of the eye
3
Q
From the Lateral Geniculate Nuclei, visual information travels to..
A
Magnocellular or Parvocellular channel found within thalamus
4
Q
magnocellular channel:
receives info from?
aka..?
A
motion, depth, brightness
rods
WHERE pathway
5
Q
parvocellular channel:
receives info from?
aka..?
A
colour, form, texture
cones
WHAT pathway
6
Q
visual information is sent to visual part of thalamus (in forebrain) and then sends most of it to..
some projections also sent to…
A
primary visual cortex
superior colliculi in midbrain (visual system)
7
Q
primary visual cortex
A
retinotopic map with more area dedicated to the fovea
8
Q
Superior colliculi involved in…
A
- older, localization of objects in space, coordination with other sensory modalities
9
Q
Visual info sent to midbrain –>___–>___
A
midbrain -> thalamus -> 1st level visual association cortex (occipital lobe)
10
Q
primary visual cortex arranged in …
A
tiles or modules
11
Q
Neurons in each module of primary visual cortex (occipital lobe)
A
neurons in each module analyze information for small area on retina (e.g., colour, shape, orientation, movement)
12
Q
first level visual association cortex:
found where?
A
adjacent areas of the occipital lobe
13
Q
second level visual association cortex: (2)
receives what info? found where?
A
parietal lobe (magnocellular info) temporal lobe (parvocellular info)
14
Q
receptive field:
A
area on the retina that a neuron will respond to
15
Q
- neurons within the same tile of the primary visual cortex have what in common?
A
have the same receptive field
16
Q
Organization of ganglion cells produces
A
centre- surround receptive fields
- light at centre of receptive field stimulates higher rate of firing of neurone (in centre) than outer periphery (inhibited firing)
17
Q
Simple cells
A
cells in V1 that respond to light or dark bars in a specific orientation
18
Q
Complex cells
A
cells in V1 (primary visual cortex) that respond to movement of light or dark bars in specific direction
19
Q
hyper complex cells (end-stopped cells)
A
cells in V1 that responds to moving lines of specific length or moving corners or angles
20
Q
visual processing is characterized by: (2)
A
bottom up or data driven processing
hierarchical organization
21
Q
bottom-up or data-driven processing:
A
analysis & integration of basic features into a perceptual unit (features –> object)
(Construct whole stimulus from its parts)
22
Q
hierarchical organization:
A
formation of perceptual units through increasingly complex connections b/w simple units
(feature detectors –> object)
23
Q
information from separate tiles integrated where?
- __, ___, ___ analyzed separately
A
at first level of association cortex
form, movement, colour
24
Q
second level parietal:
info about?
A
where is it? magnocellular
information about movement
25
Damage to Second level parietal leads to..(2)
motion agnosia, Balint’s syndrome
26
Motion Agnosia
loss of ability to perceive motion as a result of damage to parietal lobe (can't see motion)
27
Balint's Syndrome
syndrome characterized by inability to understand placement of objects relative to each other (objects jumbled, & in no particular order)
28
second level temporal:
| info about?
what is it? parvocellular
| information about color, form
29
Damage to Second level temporal leads to..(2)
visual agnosia, prosopagnosia
30
Visual Agnosia
involve the inability to recognize objects (as a result of damage to
31
Gestalt Principles
rules governing how we perceive objects as wholes within their overall context
32
Form perception -
separates figure (objects) from ground (background) through boundaries or contours
33
Gestalt psychology:
laws of grouping determine how elements of visual array will combine to form objects
the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
34
(7) Gestalt Principles
```
Proximity
Similarity
Continuity
Closure
Common Region
Connectness
Simplicity
```
35
Proximity
objects near each other tend to be seen as a unit
36
Similarity
objects similar to each other tend to be seen as a unit
37
Continuity
objects arranged in either a straight line or a smooth curve to be seen as a unit
38
Common Region
when similar objects move in the same direction we tend to see them as a unit
39
Connectness
connected items tend to be seen as a unit
40
Simplicity
aka law of Pragnanz
of several geometrically possible organizations, the one will actually occur which possesses the best, simplest and most stable shape
41
Closure
objects arranged in either a straight line or a smooth curve to be seen as a unit
42
top-down or conceptually driven processing:
the use of context in order to guide perception
43
we use (2) kinds of cues to perceive depth
1) monocular
| 2) binocular
44
we can perceive ___ using only one eye?
3 dimensions
45
monocular cues (2) 'types'
pictorial and non-pictorial
46
Cue that is non-pictorial..
motion parallax
47
motion parallax
ability to judge distance of moving object from their speed
48
pictorial cues (7)
```
interposition
relative size
linear perspective
texture
haze
shading
elevation
```
49
Interposition
overlap shows distance,
closer object in front of farther object
can tell which is closer/farther
50
Relative Size
all things being equal, more distant objects look smaller than closer
(if objects roughly same size)
51
Linear perspective
parallel lines appear to meet as they travel into distance (converge as distances increase)
52
Texture
texture of objects become less apparent as object move far away
53
We can perceive 3D using only one eye by relying on pictorial cues to gives us a sense of…
help us perceive?
a sense of whats located where in stationary scenes
| - help us perceive depth
54
Haze
as objects get farther away they become less clear
55
Shading
objects cast shadows that give us a sense of their 3D form
56
Elevation
in a scene, distance objects appear to be higher and nearer objects lower
57
1) monocular cues & 2) binocular cues
stimui that enable us to judge depth using
1) only one eye
2) both eyes
58
visual info from both sides of brain is sent to neighbouring cells in visual cortex, where brain can..
these __ form the basis of...
make comparisons (these form the basis of binocular depth perception..)
59
we use several binocular cues to perceive depth (2)
Convergence
| Retinal Disparity
60
Convergence
eyes turn inwards when viewing close objects (convergence)
| brain are aware of how much our eyes converge and use this info to estimate distance
61
Retinal Disparity
each eye sees views two slightly different images due to the eyes different positions on the head
(images on retina are different)
62
The slight difference in images viewed by each eye provides...
provide information that the brain can use to calculate depth in the visual scene
63
Retinal Disparity - perception of depth referred to as..
stereopsis
64
Stereopsis
the single perception of a slightly different image between eyes
65
corresponding retinal points*
objects equidistant (at equal distance) from observer's fixation point
(both eyes work together to permit a single visual impression localized in the same direction in space
66
Crossed
objects closer than horopter
67
Horopter
points in space which are imaged on corresponding points in the two retinas
(no retinal disparity
68
Uncrossed
objects are further than horopter has uncrossed disparity
69
Constancies
unconscious inference
form or size constancy
size-distance scaling
70
unconscious inference:
information from the stimulus combined with other information to derive perception
(type of visual perception - assumptions form incomplete data)
71
form or size constancy:
despite huge differences in retinal image (proximal), perception of size remains constant (distal)
(ability to perceive objects as same size no matter how far away they are)
72
Constancies (perceptual)
process by which we perceive stimuli consistently across varied conditions
73
size-distance scaling:
perception of size and form unconsciously adjusted on the basis of apparent distance
74
Sound is...
vibration, a kind of mechanical energy travelling through medium (usually air)
75
Compression vs Rarefaction
sound waves close together vs further apart
| opposite to each other
76
Sound have (3)
pitch
loudness
timbre
77
Pitch corresponds to…
| measured in?
frequency of wave
| Hz - cycles per second (hertz)
78
Human ear sensitive to frequency range of?
20-20,000 HZ
79
Loudness of sound corresponds to..
| measured in?
amplitude (height of wave
| decibals (dB) (0-160 dB)
80
Timbre refers to the..
quality/complexity of a sound
| dif muscial instruments sound dif b/c of dif in timbre
81
Amplitude is?
pressure change associated with the vibration or how compressed and expanded the molecules become
82
Sound waves are channeled by the ___ ear (pinna) through the __ __, causing the ___ __ to vibrate.
```
external ear (pinna)
external canal
tympanic membrane
```
83
(3) parts of ear
1) outer
2) middle
4) inner
84
(3) parts of the OUTER ear
1) pinna
2) ear (auditory) canal
3) eardrum (tymphanic membrane)
85
Just as sense receptors for vision transduce light into neural activity, sense receptors for hearing..
transduce sound into neural activity
86
vibration of tymphanic membrane causes?
vibration activates the Ossicles - tiny bones of the inner ear – the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. (malleus, incus, stapes)
(vibrate at frequency of sounds wave)
87
The ossicles vibrate at frequency of the sound wave, then what happens?
mechanical vibrations are passed along from oval window to cochlea (from eardrum to inner ear)
88
Mechanical vibrations are passed along from the oval window to cochlea, where they...
they set in motion the fluid in its canal
89
Cochlea converts...
vibration into neural activity
90
Outer and inner part of cochlea - structure
outer - bony
| inner cavity is fluid filled
91
the vibrations from sound waves disturb fluid in cochlea and travel to..
base of cochlea, where pressure is released and transduction occurs
92
As fluid moves in cochlea...
tiny hair cells lining coiled basiliar membrane within the cochlea bend, stimulating nerve endings attached to them
93
Hair cells lining basilar membrane within cochlea bend as fluid moves, stimulating nerve endings attached to them causing..
The mechanical energy is then transformed into neural energy and sent to the brain via the auditory nerve.
94
Ear has to correct...
impedance mismatch - sound in air hitting fluid boundary causes major loss of energy in sound wave
95
How does ear correct impedance mismatch?
middle ear is interposed between tympanic membrane and oval window - increases pressure almost overcoming loss due to air/fluid medium
96
outer ear:
| function?
protection
97
Pinna - function
channels sound, localization
98
Auditory (ear) Canal - function
slightly amplify sounds between 2,000 and 7,000 Hz (resonance frequency - Frequencies at which response amplitude is relative maximum)
99
eardrum: function
vibrates according to frequency of the sound
100
middle ear: function?
amplification
101
ossicles act as.. (2)
act both as lever and
| funnel vibrations from the large eardrum to the small oval window (increase pressure by factor of 30)
102
Inner ear : function
transduction
103
(3) Ossicles
malleus (hammer)
incus (anvil)
stapes (stirrup)
104
Middle ear contains?
Ossicles
105
Inner ear parts (4)
oval window
cochlea
basilar membrane
organ of corgi
106
middle ear transmits .. to? from?
vibratory motion of eardrum to inner ear
107
cochlea: function
receptors for hearing
108
oval window:
vibrates to frequency of sound
109
located in Cochlea (2)
1) organ of corgi
| 2) basilar membrane
110
organ of corgi and basilar membrane are critical to hearing because?
hair cells are embedded within them
| - hair cells are where transduction of auditory info takes place
111
basilar membrane:
separates tympanic canal from cochlear duct
112
cochlear duct contains? which rests on?
the Organ of Corti which rests on the basilar membrane
113
Cochlear duct consists of?
tectorial membrane, outer hair cells, inner hair cells, spiral ganglion cells and auditory nerve
114
the auditory hair cells are located...
within the organ of Corti on a thin basilar membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear
115
Each hair cell has many..
many fine filaments or cilia
116
hair cells attached to?
| and cilia attached to?
basilar membrane
| tectorial membrane
117
vibration of basilar membrane produces
shearing action and cilia bend
118
bending action of cilia allows…
| which does what?
potassium to flow into cell --> release of neurotransmitters to dendrites of spiral ganglion cells
119
bending action of cilia allows K+ to flow into cell, which releases...
of neurotransmitters to dendrites of spiral ganglion cells
120
Pitch perception:
place theory:
pitch coded according to?
different frequencies stimulate different locations on basilar membrane
- pitch coded according to LOCATION
(primary aud. cortex: different places processes different tones)
121
Primary Auditory Cortex processes tones how?
processes dif tones in diff places bc each place receives info from specific place in basilar membrane
122
traveling waves produced within the cochlea
| According to place theory.. high vs low frequency
high frequency -> collapse early (base)
| low frequency -> collapse (apex)
123
tonotopic mapping:
| resolution for high vs low frequencies
orderly layout of frequency coding along basilar membrane
resolution for high frequencies good but poor for low frequencies (less than 250 Hz)
124
Frequency theory of pitch Perception
entire basilar membrane vibrates at frequency of incoming sound and neural firing rate codes frequency (pitch)
125
Place theory only accounts for perception of?
high-pitched tones (5000 - 20000 Hz)
126
Frequency theory works well up to… because?
1000Hz (1000/sec)
| maximum neural firing is near this limit
127
Volley principle is a...
Variation of frequency theory that works for tones bw 1000-5000 Hz
128
According to Volley principle...
networks of coordinated neurons fire sequentially to code for frequency above 1000/sec
(neurone fire at highest rate, slightly out of sync to reach overall rates of above 1000/s)
129
What codes for pitch/frequency?
a) Place theory
b) Frequency theory
a) pitched coded according to location
| b) neural firing rate codes frequency (reproduces pitch)
130
below 500 Hz...
basilar membrane codes using the frequency principle
131
evidence of frequency coding throughout auditory system...
up to 5000 Hz
132
above 5000 Hz
place coding
133
500 – 5000 Hz
both frequency and place coding
134
Theory for:
1) < 500 Hz
2) 500-5000 Hz
3) > 5000 Hz
1) frequency coding
2) both frequency and place
3) place coding
135
human language frequency
3000-5000 Hz
136
interaural intensity
head casts a sound shadow producing intensity differences between ears
137
interaural intensity effective only for?
higher frequencies
138
both cues:
greatest at 90º, none at 0º or 180º
139
interaural time of arrival:
sounds arrive at each ear at different times
| calculate time difference to locate sound
140
interaural time of arrival: most effective for?
e for low frequencies
141
(2) cues for sound localization
1) inter aural time of arrival - (time dif)
| 2) interaural intensity - (intensity dif) loudness
142
taste bud receptors located?
within trenches of papillae on tongue
143
microvilli:
tiny hairs on taste buds that make contact with saliva
| - send signals to the brain
144
Taste
sensation produced when soluble chemical substance in the mouth reacts chemically with receptors of taste buds
145
Taste and Smell are chemical senses because...
we derive these sensory experiences from chemicals in substance
146
different types of molecules (food)
stimulate receptors for sour, sweet, salty, bitter
147
Different papillae contain...
contain different distributions of receptors
148
sensitivities of certain tastes vary
across the tongue
149
Smell & Taste also called?
Olfaction & Gustation
150
Odours & Flavours
volatile/airborne & soluble chemical substances that interact with receptors of nose/tongue
151
How do we smell?
- when olfactory receptor comes into contact with odour molecule, action potential in neuron triggered and info sent to olfactory bulb in brain then brain
152
Nose - olfactory components
olfactory neurons contains 1 olfactory receptor cell which has cilia embedded in olfactory mucus
153
___ different molecules can stimulate receptors of smell
1000
154
odours are based on?
complex coding
155
After odors interact with receptors in nasal passage, activity/info passed to? then?
olfactory bulbs and then to limbic system (no thalamus)
156
Odours can evoke…?
| how?
memories
| activity passed to limbic system which plays a role in memories
157
Skin senses - how we sense touch?
many different types of specialized dendrites embedded into the skin
158
free nerve endings (non-corpuscular)
| associated with?
pain and temperature
no globules at end of dendrites
no specialized receptor organs
159
corpuscular endings
| associated with?
associated with pressure and touch
have rounded globular mass at nerve end
concentrated in regions that need specialized touch sensitivity
160
sensitivity to pressure and touch measured with ?
| Touch acuity is conventionally measured using this
a two-point threshold
161
two-point threshold
the smallest separation at which two points applied simultaneously to the skin can be distinguished from one
162
temperature sensation:
Hot:
Cold:
cold fibres decrease, warm fibres increase
cold fibres increase, warm fibres decrease
(neural firing)
(warm receptors - C fibers,
cold receptors - A-delta)
163
Pain perception influences by?
many factors - very complex
164
sensory signals of pain carried by?
two fibres
165
sensory signals of pain carried by (2 )types of sensory fibres
1) A-delta fibers
| 2) C fibers
166
A-delta fibers:
fast, myelinated; sharp pain
167
- C fibers:
slow, unmyelinated; aching or burning pain
168
Internal senses
| kinesthesia:
sense (that detects) tells you where your body parts are with respect to each other
169
receptors in the bones, joints and muscles send sensory information to?
thalamus, cerebellum and somatosensory cortex
170
Vestibular senses
aka sense of equilibrium
specifies the position of the head (and hence body) in space
(i.e., balance)
171
In addition to cochlea, inner ear contains 3.. and 2...
2 Semicircular canals & 2 vestibular sacs
172
Vestibular sense involve
the 2 vestibular sacs & 3 semicircular canals
173
semicircular canals sense
acceleration/deceleration in any direction as the head moves
174
vestibular sacs
sense gravity and position of the head in space
175
From the standpoint of formal logic or probability...
people don’t reason so well.
176
People don't reason so well because general world knowledge often has...
too big an influence on people as they reason.
177
Usually-- but not always-- people reason better with ___ vs. ___ material.
concrete
| abstract
178
People need to be more ___.
skeptical
179
What influences our reasoning abilities?
Our prior knowledge and beliefs
180
We often search for …. when we should search for…. (i.e., we are not very intuitive scientists)
```
confirming evidence (confirmation bias)
disconfirming evidence
```
181
Causal reasoning
ability to identify relationships between cause and the effect
182
Covariation = ?
prob. of the effect given the cause
MINUS
prob. of the effect in the absence of the cause
183
How do we explain things?
beleifs + understanding of the world + empirical evidence
184
How do people evaluate empirical evidence about known things?
(their behaviour)
beliefs affect/influence evaluation of empirical evidence such that people weigh empirical evidence more for believable than for unbelievable candidates.
185
Are people aware of their use of belief- and covariation-based cues? (introspection)
Individuals may not be entirely aware of the extent to which their knowledge influences their decisions.
186
motivation:
psychological processes that arouse, direct and maintain behaviour towards a goal
187
Theories of motivation (3)
drive reduction theory
optimum-level theory
incentive theories
188
drive reduction theory:
needs produce a state of tension called a drive
189
homeostasis:
maintenance of physiological systems at normal level
190
optimum-level theory:
behaviour directed to restore level of arousal to an optimal level
191
optimum-level theory based on?
conditioning principles
192
incentive theories:
external stimuli regulate motivational states
193
Source of motivation:
a) Internal
b) External
a) push - drive
| b) pull - incentive
194
Incentive theories often referred to as?
Push (drive) Pull (incentive) theories
195
Source of motivation:
a) Internal
b) External
often. ..
a) physiological
| b) environmental
196
internal (often biological) drives
| external (environmental) stimuli
push
| pull
197
Maslow:
| motives can be broadly classified as (2):
biological and/or social
198
According to Maslow...satisfaction of one set of needs...
activates needs at the next level
199
Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs (motives) as humans progress through life
at lower needs dominate individuals motivation as long as they are unsatisfied.
lower needs must be met before higher needs can be addressed.
Once adequately met, higher needs occupy the individuals attention
200
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: levels (5)
Biological -> Safety -> Attachment -> Esteem(confidence) -> Self-actualization
```
(need for….
food, water
security, comfort
to belong, love, be loved
confidence, self-esteem
to fulfill potential/have meaningful goals
```
201
Mechanism of hunger:
| Early idea proposed by Canon and Washburn (1912)
stomach contractions , which occur when stomach is empty cause hunger
(falsified)
202
How brain influences hunger (hypothalamus)
| too simple a model
Hypothalamus:
ventromedial
- stimulated: stops eating
- destroyed: eats continuously
lateral
- stimulated: eats continuously
- destroyed: stops eating
203
Theory proposed by Mayer 1955
Glucostatic Theory
204
glucostatic theory:
suggests that body monitors fluctuations in levels of blood glucose and sends signals to brain
- receptors sensitive to glucose called glucostats notify brain when levels are reduced
(hunger produced to restore proper level of glucose) (achieving homeostasis)
205
Glucostats
receptors sensitive to glucose
- notify brain when low levels
monitor a cell’s uptake of glucose from the blood
206
recent evidence suggests that receptors equivalent to glucostats may be...
located in liver and send signals to hypothalamus
207
Ventromedial hypothalamus makes you feel...
full
208
Lateral hypothalamus makes you feel...
hungry
209
other mechanisms involving HORMONES are probably involved in activating brain structures for control of hunger and eating
(2) hormones
1) insulin
| 2) leptin
210
Biological mechanisms of hunger
Hormones
211
Mechanisms of hunger involving hormones #1:
| insulin has been shown to be related to hunger how?
↑ levels of insulin contribute to hunger
212
Mechanisms of hunger involving hormones #2:
| Leptin
leptin secreted by fat cells that have absorbed triglyceride
produces metabolic rate ↑ , body temperature ↑ , produces more physical activity, and less eating occurs
213
Leptin: anti-obesity hormone
| explain
mouse had problem with serious overeating
problem was absence of protein leptin
injected with leptin & mouse returned to normal weight
same chemical may be correlated with obesity in humans
214
the more stored energy in fat cells, the more they produce a hormone called...
leptin
215
Satiety Mechanism
mechanism to signal us to stop eating
216
Satiety mechanism involving hormone?
cholecystokinin (CCK)
217
cholecystokinin (CCK):
a hormone released when food enters digestive system
| signals us to stop eating
218
stomach contains receptors
for quantity and quality
219
food preferences: (2)
innate preferences and observational learning
acquired through learning
or innate - natural, ability to develop taste aversions
220
food-related cues
cues that motivate use to eat more
visual, mental, auditory or even olfactory
apparent time
environmental events are often associated with hunger and eating
221
apparent time: Schachter & Gross (1968)
manipulated apparent time
obese people ate 2x as much
non obese people ate less
222
Hunger:
| stress produces...
produces increased eating in a substantial proportion of individuals, high stress leads to overeating
223
Obesity
condition of being overweight by 20% of ideal weight
224
external cues
Schachter (1971):
Rodin (1978):
all pull, no push- external
obese people respond to external cues of hunger, such as time, more than non-obese people who tend to respond more to internal cues of hunger
pull causes push (increased insulin secretions)
ppl who respond to external cues of hunger tend to increase the level of insulin in the blood more than people who respond to internal cues
225
Obesity - genetic predisposition: proven by?
twin studies
heritability: 61% males, 73% females
leptin receptors in the brain dysfunctional?
226
set point:
a natural point of stability in body weight
| - (value that establishes range of body and muscle mass we tend to maintain)
227
Set Point Theory of Obesity
elevated set point
| - (value that establishes range of body and muscle mass we tend to maintain)
228
dietary restraint & obesity
vacillations in dietary restraint lead to obesity
229
restrained eaters:
constantly control eating impulses, feel guilty when they fail
disinhibited when they fail
230
Hormonal regulation & sexual motivation
estrogens:
androgens:
female gonadal hormones
estrogen levels do not correlate well in women
male gonadal hormones
231
Androgens
| prenatal effect
androgens stimulate development of male sex organs and development of the brain
232
Androgens
| activation effect
heightened sexual arousal, ability to have an erection
233
Androgens related to..
related to sexual motivation for both sexes
234
Sexual Motivation: testosterone vs estrogen
high levels of testosterone in both males and females correlate with higher rates of sexual activity but estrogen levels in women do not
235
overall, normal hormonal swings in humans have what impact on sexual motivation?
little impact on sexual motivation, with males showing the greatest variability
236
pheromones:
chemicals secreted by one animal that affects the behaviour of another
237
Pheromones effect on Humans
ovulatory synchronization
Russell, Switz & Thompson (1980)
humans may respond to some pheromones, but not related to sex drive
(other species behaviour affected)
238
human sexual motivation best characterized as?
an incentive model
239
2 aspects of Incentive model of human sexual motivation
availability of potential partner
| attraction to potential partner
240
Coolidge effect
new partner can revive dwindling sexual interest
phenomenon seen in mammalian species where males (& to lesser extent females) exhibit renewed sexual interest if introduced to new receptive sexual partners, even after refusing sex from prior but still available sexual partners.
241
Coolidge effect (simple definition)
across species, appears to be a preference for a variety of sexual partners by males
242
evolutionary theory:
males maximize their reproductive success with many female partners
243
Buss & Schmidt (1993)
asked students to indicate the ideal number of sexual partners over their lifespan
M:15, F:4-5
244
Janus & Janus (1993)
found that males indicate that they engage in more premarital and extramarital sex with more partners than do women
M: greater premarital and extramarital
245
Whitley (1988)
What was your most important reason for having sexual intercourse on the most recent occasion?
lust and pleasure, 51-M, 9-F
love and emotional, 24-M, 51-F
246
Question asked: are males and females socialized to have different attitudes about sex or is the evolutionary hypothesis valid?
LOOK UP!!!
males and females exhibit both similarities and differences
however, some universal differences seemed to be observed
247
Buss & Colleagues found...
males maximize number of partners (quantity)
| females select for resources (quality)
248
sexual orientation:
preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same, different or either sex
249
widespread observation of homosexuality indicates it is …
EVIDENCE?
not “unnatural”
| few species practice exclusive homosexuality
250
what are the determinants of homosexual and bisexual behaviour?
(2) THEORIES
Environmental
Biological
251
environmental theories
| no evidence
psychoanalytic
| behavioural
252
Homosexuality...
| some evidence associated with...
childhood behaviours
| gender non-conformity
253
Sexual orientation seems to be established...
orientation established early
254
biological theories
```
hormonal differences (no apparent link)
genetic influence
```
255
Bailey and Pillard (1991) studied gay men
| and found...
genetic link
| concordance rate: 52% identical, 22% fraternal, 11% adoptive brothers
256
men and homosexuality - Brain differences
anterior hypothalamus: reduced size in gay men
(Levay,1991)
suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus elongated in gay men (and women)
(Swaab, Gooren & Hofman (1992)
257
women and homosexuality
increased prenatal androgen levels
| prenatal exposure to DES (prevention of miscarriage)
258
androgen insensitivity syndrome
condition that results in the partial or complete inability of the cell to respond to androgens
no androgen receptors
XY develops female genitals
hormonal treatment at adolescence
259
homosexuality is strongly linked to...
prenatal development
260
emotion:
a display of feelings that are evoked when important events occur
261
(3) aspects of emotions
```
behavioural component (expression)
autonomic response - sympathetic
cognitive component (subjective interpretation of emotional state)
```
262
conditioned emotional response
an emotional response that results from classical conditioning, usually from association of a relatively neutral stimulus with a painful or fear-inducing experience
Little Albert
263
CER relies on activity within//
amygdala
264
activity of the amygdala (limbic system)
destroyed
stimulated
CER is not observed
| rage response in cat
265
orbitofrontal cortex:
info from…
likely used for…
connections with..
base of the frontal lobes
info from sensory systems and frontal lobes (planning)
likely used for translating interpretations of events or judgments into the appropriate feeling and behaviours
connections with limbic system
266
pre-frontal lobotomy: (for psychotic patients)
reduce pathological emotional responses
serious change in personality
most normal emotions eliminated
267
lie detector test
use of polygraph to measure autonomic responses
(change as a function of emotion)
lies produce anxiety
268
control question test
50% false positives
some people react to the critical questions
269
guilty knowledge test
90% guilty, 3-4% false positives
| ideally, critical questions based on information only guilty party could know
270
expression of emotions
behaviourally through body language and facial expressions
271
Ekman & Friesen recognize 6 basic emotions
fear, disgust, happiness, anger, surprise, sadness
272
Display Rules
social group's informal norms about when, where, and how one should express emotions
273
display rules of emotional expression vary across… but...
culture
| characteristic expressions transcend culture
274
Theories of Emotion
1) Common Sense View of Emotion
2) James-Lang Theory
3) Canon Bard Theory
4) Schacter’s Two-Process Theory
275
1) Common Sense View of Emotion
“I tremble because I feel afraid”
Stimulus –
Conscious Feeling –
Autonomic Arousal –
Dog -> FEAR -> Surge of adrenaline
276
James-Lang Theory
“I feel afraid because I tremble”
Stimulus –
Physiological Reaction
Cerebral Cortex
Emotions
Dog -> fight/flight -> awareness -> emotions
277
James-Lang Theory suggest that different...
different patterns of autonomic arousal lead to different emotions
278
Canon Bard Theory
“The dog makes me tremble and feel afraid”
Stimulus
Cerebral Cortex -> Emotions
Physiological Reactions
•
279
Canon Bard Theory
autonomic changes too slow to produce conscious experience of emotion
different emotions associated with the same autonomic arousal
